The Study IAS

Tag: GS-3

  • Anti-Radiation missile Rudram-1

    Anti-Radiation missile Rudram-1

    Context:

    India has successfully test-fired its first indigenous anti-radiation missile, the Rudram-1, developed by the DRDO for the Indian Air Force (IAF).

     

     

    About Rudram- 1:

    • The missile is integrated on SU-30 MKI fighter aircraft as the launch platform, having capability of varying ranges based on launch conditions. 
    • It has INS-GPS navigation with Passive Homing Head for accurately hitting radiation emitting targets. 
    • It is an Air – to surface missile.
    • The missile can be launched from varying altitudes, ranging from 500 metres to 15 kilometres, and has a range of up to 250 kilometres.
    • Speed 0.6 to 2 Mach and uses Solid fuel.
    • The country has established indigenous capability to develop long range air launched anti-radiation missiles for neutralising enemy Radars, communication sites and other RF emitting targets.
    • However, they can also be directed at jammers and communication radios.

     

    Technology:

    • An Inertial Navigation System (INS) is a navigation aid that uses accelerometers and gyroscopes to calculate the position, orientation, and velocity of a moving object. 
    • It does this autonomously, without relying on external signals like GPS, making it essential for applications in aerospace, marine, military, and autonomous vehicles.
    • The Passive Homing Head can detect, classify and engage targets over a wide band of frequencies as programmed.
    • This precision is crucial for Suppression of Enemy Air Defence (SEAD) operations.

     

    Significance :

    • Modern warfare is increasingly network-centric, involving advanced detection, surveillance, and communication systems integrated with weapons systems.
  • India’s Aditya-L1 Completes First Halo Orbit Around Sun-Earth L1 Point

    India’s Aditya-L1 Completes First Halo Orbit Around Sun-Earth L1 Point

    Context:

    ISRO announced a significant milestone for India’s first solar mission, Aditya-L1, as it completed its first halo orbit around the Sun-Earth L1 point. 

    The spacecraft, launched on September 2, 2023, achieved insertion into its initial halo orbit on January 6, 2024.

     

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    Aditya-L1 Mission

    • India’s first solar mission.
    • Launched via PSLV-C57 from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre at Sriharikota.
    • Objective: It intends to investigate the Sun’s corona and atmosphere from the L1 (Lagrange point).

    〈 L1, which lies between the Sun and Earth. This unique location allows it to observe the Sun continuously without Earth’s interference. 〉

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    About Halo Orbit:

    • It is a three-dimensional, periodic orbit around Lagrange points in a two-body system like Earth-Sun or Earth-Moon. 
    • It is commonly linked with L1, L2, and L3 Lagrange points, where the gravitational forces of two large bodies and centrifugal force balance each other.
    • The spacecraft’s halo orbit takes 178 days to complete one revolution around the L1 point.
    • During this journey, perturbing forces (such as gravitational interactions) can cause the spacecraft to deviate from its intended path.

     

     

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    Lagrange Points

    • Positions in space where the gravitational pull of two large masses balances with the centripetal force required for a small object to move with them.
    • There are five Lagrange points in a two-body system:
    1. Three unstable points: L1, L2, L3 (lie along the line connecting the two large masses).
    2. Two stable points: L4 and L5 (form the apex of two equilateral triangles with the large masses at their vertices).

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    Benefits of placing Aditya-L1 in a halo orbit around the L1 point are:

    • Ensuring a mission lifetime of 5 years: It is selected to minimise station-keeping manoeuvres and fuel consumption, thus extending the mission life.
    • A satellite in a halo orbit around L1 has the major advantage of continuously viewing the Sun without any occultation or eclipses. 
    • It provides an unobstructed view of the Sun crucial for studying the solar atmosphere, including the photosphere, chromosphere, and corona.

     

    The orbit provides a stable line of sight to Earth and the Sun, which is beneficial for continuous communication and solar power.

  • Radiation Biodosimetry: Essential steps in responding to a Radiological Incident

    Radiation Biodosimetry: Essential steps in responding to a Radiological Incident

    Context:

    The Columbia University team is striving to shorten the assay time on a High Throughput Screening (HTS) platform to less than 4 hours, recognizing the critical importance of promptly reporting radiation doses to enhance the effectiveness of treatments.

     

    More on news: 

    • Drugs approved for radiation sickness are most beneficial when given shortly after exposure, underscoring the need for rapid dose assessment.
    • Rapid assessment of radiation doses is necessary to address the needs of potentially thousands of individuals within a few days post-event.
    • Automated biodosimetry facilitates rapid assessment of radiation exposure post-event. Supports tiered triage for immediate treatment decisions and long-term health monitoring.

     

    Biodosimetry Definition and Purpose:

    • It is the method of determining radiation exposure levels based on changes in biological indicators such as blood, urine, or hair samples.
    • Particularly useful when personal radiation monitoring devices are unavailable during a radiological event.

     

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    What is Assay?

    • An assay refers to the methodical process of analysing a substance to ascertain its composition or quality.
    • This term is commonly employed in various industries such as mining, environmental sciences, chemistry, and pharmaceuticals.

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    Gold Standard Biodosimetry Assays:

    • Dicentric Chromosome Assay (DCA): provides results in 2-3 days.
    • Measures chromosome aberrations in white blood cells.
    • Requires cell culturing and microscopy to count dicentric chromosomes.
    • Cytokinesis Block Micronucleus Assay (CBMN): results in approx 3 days by detecting micronuclei formation during incomplete cell division.
    • Requires cell culturing, yielding results in approximately 3 days.
    • Gamma-H2AX Assay: yielding results within 6-8 hours.
    • Detects phosphorylation of histone proteins indicating radiation exposure. Differentiates exposure levels without cell culturing.

     

    Enhancing Biodosimetry Throughput:

    • Traditional lab networks and automated systems like RABiT increase sample processing capacity.
    • High Throughput Screening (HTS) platforms allow rapid analysis of thousands of samples per day.

     

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    Accelerating Biodosimetry and Logistical Considerations in Emergency Response:

    • Premature Chromosome Condensation (PCC) assay accelerates DCA to potentially provide same-day results.
    • Efforts to implement PCC assay on HTS platforms aim for results in under 4 hours.
    • Logistical considerations in emergency response involve Community Reception Centers (CRCs) triaging individuals using rapid Point-of-Care (POC) biodosimetry.
    • Hospital or lab-based biodosimetry (DCA or CBMN) offers precise dose estimates for treatment decisions.
    • These assessments also support long-term epidemiological follow-up and risk assessment.

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  • Permaculture: A Sustainable Alternative to Conventional Agriculture

    Permaculture: A Sustainable Alternative to Conventional Agriculture

    Context:

    A recent study by researchers from RPTU University of Kaiserslautern-Landau and BOKU University has shown that permaculture can significantly improve biodiversity, soil quality, and carbon storage. 

     

    More on News:

    • This finding, especially considering the challenges of climate change and species extinction. 
    • It offers a real alternative to conventional agriculture and could even help reconcile environmental protection with high yields.

     

    Research Findings:

    • Research focus: Investigated the effects of permaculture on soil quality and biodiversity in Central Europe.
    • Methodology: Compared nine farms in Germany and Luxembourg to control fields using conventional agriculture.
    • Soil quality: Sites had 27% higher soil carbon stocks, 20% lower bulk density, and higher macro and micronutrient concentrations, indicating better conditions for crops.
        • Soil’s higher organic carbon, humus, and nutrient levels, enhance their ability to store water and nutrients, similar to natural grasslands during drought periods.
    • Biodiversity: Showed significantly higher species richness: 457% increase in vascular plants, 201% increase in earthworms, 197% increase in birds.

     

     

    About Permaculture:

    • Permaculture integrates land, resources, people and the environment through mutually beneficial synergies – imitating the no-waste, closed-loop systems seen in diverse natural systems.
    • Sustainable design using natural ecosystems (introduced 1970s).
    • It creates self-regulating, natural, diverse food production systems.
    • It combines livestock farming, beneficial organisms, and soil health techniques.
    • Enhances carbon storage through organic matter, reduced tillage, and mulching.
    • Permaculture soils show high phosphorus levels, vital for plant growth (contrasts intensive agriculture).

     

    Permaculture for the future:

    To encourage wider adoption of permaculture, the researchers suggest:

    • Restructuring financial incentives to favour sustainable farming methods.
    • Revising agricultural education to include permaculture and other sustainable approaches.
    • Developing flagship projects to showcase the effectiveness of permaculture.

     

  • Bats as Viral Hosts and Zoonotic Disease Prevention

    Bats as Viral Hosts and Zoonotic Disease Prevention

    Context:

    Studies suggest bats are special viral reservoirs with the most virulent zoonotic viruses. The creatures harbour a vast array of viruses, some of which cause deadly diseases in humans.

     

    Bats: Viable Viral Hosts:

    • Bats harbour numerous viruses, some deadly to humans, yet rarely fall ill.
    • Bats live in colonies, promoting easy virus transmission.
    • Bats can survive high viral loads without showing clinical disease.
    • Bats’ antiviral properties likely select for high growth rate viruses, which can be pathogenic in other hosts.
        • High viral loads and anti-inflammatory phenotype allow bats to transmit viruses efficiently.

     

     

    Adaptations for Flight, Viral Tolerance, and Coexistence:

    • Flight requires significant metabolic effort, leading to unique adaptations in bats:
        • Dampened recognition of cellular damage, Unique anti-inflammatory phenotype, Enhanced DNA damage repair pathways.
    • These adaptations also help bats resist and tolerate viral infections.
    • Bats immune adaptations for flight aid in viral tolerance and longevity.
    • Bats balance viral tolerance with strong antiviral responses.
    • Bats host thousands of viruses, including those causing human diseases like Nipah, Marburg, rabies, and SARS-like viruses.

     

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    Zoonotic diseases: 

    • The infections that are spread between people and animals. 
    • These infections are caused by germs, such as viruses, bacteria, parasites, and fungi.

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    Spillover and Human Transmission:

    • Bat-borne viruses are less likely to establish sustained human transmission due to phylogenetic distance.
    • Viruses from hosts closer to humans, like primates, have higher potential for endemic establishment.
    • Human activities, such as deforestation and climate change, increase spillover risks.
    • Intermediate hosts (e.g., dogs, pigs, horses) often play a role before bat-borne viruses infect humans.

     

    Importance of Conservation and Studying Bat-Borne Viruses:

    • Understanding bat virus transmission aids in early intervention to prevent spillover, research on fruit bats in Madagascar provides insights into virus movement and bat immune responses.
    • Discovering new henipaviruses helps develop preventive measures like multivalent vaccines.
    • Bats face population decline due to white nose syndrome and climate change.
    • Negative perceptions hinder bat conservation efforts.
    • Bats are essential for ecosystems, including pollination and insect control.
    • Studying bats provides insights for combating viruses, advancing human health, and understanding bat immune systems, cancer resistance, and longevity, offering valuable knowledge for human health.

     

     

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    Interesting Facts About Bats:

    • Bats are the only flying mammals.
    • Baby bats are called pups, a group of bats is a colony.
    • Bat droppings, high in potassium nitrate (saltpeter), can be used to make gunpowder and fertiliser.
    • Only smaller bats use echolocation, bigger bats have better vision than humans.
    • Without bats, we would lose bananas, avocados, and mangoes.

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  • Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)

    Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)

    Context:

    India’s liquefied natural gas (LNG) imports touched a near four-year high as gas-based power output jumps amid severe heatwave. 

     

    More on News: 

    • India imported 2.60 million tonnes (mt) of LNG in June 2024, marking a 44-month high.
    • Plant load factor (PLF) (capacity utilisation of power generation units) for gas-based plants rose to 25.8% in June 2024, up from 17% in June 2023.
    • In June, power generation from gas-based units saw a 52% increase compared to the same month last year, according to Central Electricity Authority (CEA).

     

     

    Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)

    • It is natural gas cooled to about -260°F to condense it into liquid form, reducing its volume by about 600 times for easier transport.
    • It emits 40% less CO2 than coal and 30% less than oil, making it the cleanest fossil fuel with minimal emissions of pollutants like soot, dust, and sulphur dioxide.
    • Predominantly methane (85-95%), LNG has a lower carbon content than other fossil fuels, though its composition can vary.
    • Global LNG demand is projected to grow by over 50% by 2040 (Shell LNG Outlook 2024), 
      • Driven by industrial coal-to-gas switching in China and increased use in South Asian and Southeast Asian economies to support economic growth.

     

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    Government steps: 

    • GRID-INDIA to inform Gas-based Generating Stations of Power Requirement. 
    • New Capacity Additions to be Speeded up
    • Partial Outages of Thermal Power Plants being brought down
    • Shifting of hydro power generation to peak hours
    • NITI Aayog and the Embassy of the Kingdom of the Netherlands have been collaborating on energy transition since 2020 under a Statement of Intent (SoI) partnership.

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    Gas-Based Power Plants and Energy Security

    • Gas-based power plants use both domestic natural gas and imported LNG.
    • Imported LNG accounted for around 56% of the total natural gas consumed by power plants in April 2024.
    • The Power Ministry instructed gas-based plants to operate to meet summer demand, invoking Section 11 of the Electricity Act, 2003.

     

    Challenges Related to LNG Adoption

    • Building LNG facilities and using specialised cryogenic carriers add significant costs.
    • India faces challenges like limited availability of LNG vehicles, high initial costs, and insufficient financing and retail networks.
    • LNG is cleaner than coal but still emits methane, a potent greenhouse gas.
    • LNG is highly flammable, posing risks such as leaks, fires, and explosions if mishandled.

     

  • Surplus Milk Powder: Dairy Industry’s New Problem

    Surplus Milk Powder: Dairy Industry’s New Problem

    Context:

    Cooperative and private dairies are holding an estimated 3-3.25 lakh tonnes (lt) of Skimmed Milk Powder (SMP) stocks at the start of the production year.

     

    Skimmed Milk Powder (SMP) :

    • Cow milk averages 3.5% fat and 8.5% solids-not-fat (SNF), while buffalo milk has 6.5% fat and 9% SNF. 
    • As milk is perishable and can’t be stocked, only its solids (fat and SNF) are storable after cream separation and drying of skimmed milk.
    • During the “flush” season ( when cattle and buffaloes produce more), dairies convert surplus milk into butter, ghee, and SMP. 
    • These solids are recombined with water into liquid milk during the “lean” season (when production falls short of demand).
    • From every 100 litres of cow milk, a dairy can make about 8.75 kg of SMP (at 8.5% SNF), and 3.6 kg of ghee (at 3.5% fat).

     

    Problem of Surplus in SMP:

    • The Problem arises when dairies procure excess milk beyond normal surplus during flush season. 

    ♦ This leads to an oversupply of SMP and butter/ghee with limited demand. 

    • In India, dairies annually produce 5.5-6 million litres of SMP, of which about 4 million litres are used for recombining during lean periods. 

    ♦ The remaining 1.5-2 million litres are used in various food and industrial products, such as ice cream, biscuits, and baby formula.

    • The year 2023-24 saw abundant milk supplies throughout, unlike the previous year, which faced severe shortages. 
    • This resulted in surplus milk availability, even during lean months, causing only around 2.5 million litres of SMP for reconstitution purposes. 
    • Instead of the usual opening stocks of 1.5-1.75 million litres, dairies now hold 3-3.25 million litres of SMP. 
    • With the new flush season beginning and expected to peak, exacerbated by increased buffalo milk production, the surplus SMP issue may intensify.

     

    Impact:

    • It led to price declines for cow SMP, yellow butter and ghee.
    • Lower prices reduce revenue for dairies, affecting payments to farmers.

     

     

     

    Potential Solutions:

    • Subsidise SMP exports to boost domestic prices and support dairy farmers.

    ♦ However, Global SMP prices have dropped making commercial exports less viable.

    • R S Sodhi, President of the Indian Dairy Association, proposes to create a buffer stock of SMP to stabilise prices and prevent future milk inflation.
    • Develop markets for SMP constituents such as: 

    ♦  Proteins (casein and whey), carbohydrates (lactose), and minerals (calcium, potassium, and phosphorus).

     

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    Dairy Sector: 

    • India is the highest milk producer and ranks first position in the world contributing 24.64% of global milk production in the year 2021-22.
    • Top 5 milk-producing states: Rajasthan (15.05%), Uttar Pradesh (14.93%), Madhya Pradesh (8.6%), Gujarat (7.56%) and Andhra Pradesh (6.97%).  

    ♦ They together contribute 53.11% of total Milk production in the country.

    • India’s Export of Dairy products was 67,572.99 MT to the world for worth  $284.65 Mn during the year 2022-23

     

    Challenges of the Dairy Sector: 

    • Animal husbandry and dairying face several significant challenges, including managing diseases and ensuring animal health. 
    • Ensuring the availability and quality of feed and fodder is another critical issue. 
    • Many operations struggle with outdated infrastructure and a lack of modern technology. 
    • This is further compounded by a shortage of skilled personnel and veterinary services. 
    • Financial constraints and limited access to credit exacerbate these problems, making it difficult for farmers to invest in necessary improvements. 
    • Additionally, marketing and distribution present considerable hurdles, hindering farmers’ ability to reach broader markets efficiently.

     

    Government Initiatives: 

    • eGopala App, Rashtriya Gokul Mission, National Livestock Mission, Dairy processing & Infrastructure Development Fund (DIDF), National Animal Disease Control Programme (NADCP), Purnea Semen Station, first state-of-the-art frozen semen production station in Bihar State. 

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  • Global Conclave on Plastic Recycling and Sustainability

    Global Conclave on Plastic Recycling and Sustainability

    Context:

    The four-day Global Conclave on Plastic Recycling and Sustainability (GCPRS) focusing on addressing plastic waste management, recycling, and sustainability to promote circularity.

     

    Key Points of the GCPRS:

    • Jointly organised by All India Plastic Manufacturers Association (AIPMA) and  Chemicals & Petrochemicals Manufacturers’ Association(CPMA), focusing on plastic use, environmental impact, and solutions.
    • Showcases innovative recycling technologies, sustainable options like biodegradable and compostable plastics, and efficient waste management solutions highlight the need for global collaboration.
    • Only ten percent of global plastic waste is recycled, the plastic industry significantly contributes to the economy and employment.
    • Emphasises the need for concerted and collaborative efforts across sectors to curb plastic pollution.
    • Establishes the Technology and Entrepreneurship Center (AMTEC) for manpower and skill enhancement in the plastic manufacturing sector.
    • Mentions the Plastic Waste Management Rules of 2016, mandating extended producer responsibility, stricter recycling packages, and banning specific single-use plastics.
      • Acknowledges the role of Central Institute of Petrochemicals Engineering & Technology (CIPET) and Department of Chemical and Petrochemical (DCPC) in implementing these rules.
    • Stresses the importance of transitioning to a sustainable circular economy due to tightening global environmental regulations.

     

     

     

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    The Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016: 

    • It requires plastic waste generators to minimise its generation, avoid littering, ensure segregation at the source, and hand over segregated waste as per regulations (Extended Producer Responsibility).
    • The rules mandate the responsibilities of local bodies, gram panchayats, waste generators, retailers and street vendors to manage plastic waste.

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    Support from MSME and Other Ministry:

    • The Ministry supports plastic recycling and sustainability initiatives.
    • Many plastic industry enterprises fall under the MSME department.
    • Plans for a state-of-the-art export centre in Hyderabad as part of their 100-day program.
    • Urged stakeholders to utilise benefits extended by the Ministry.
    • Support from Central Ministries: Environment, Forest and Climate Change; Housing and Urban Affairs; Swachh Bharat Mission; Commerce and Industry; Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises; Chemicals and Fertilisers.

     

    Indian Government Initiative to Control Plastic Waste:

    • Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016: Increased minimum thickness of plastic carry bags from 40 to 50 microns.
    • 2018 Amendment: Phased out non-recyclable multilayered plastic (MLP).
    • 2021 Amendment: Banned single-use plastics (SUP) like earbuds, balloon sticks, plastic flags, etc., effective July 1, 2022. Increased plastic carry bag thickness to 75 microns (Sept 2021) and 120 microns (Dec 2022).
    • Blanket Ban: Prohibited plastic sachets for pan masala, gutkha, and tobacco.
    • 2022 Amendment: Introduced Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) guidelines mandating recycling, reuse, and use of recycled plastic. Categorised plastics into rigid packaging, flexible packaging, multilayered packaging, and plastic sheet packaging.

     

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    Growth of India’s Plastic Recycling Industry:

    • India’s plastic recycling industry is rapidly growing and is expected to reach $6.9 billion by 2033.
    • Government initiatives and a robust existing recycling rate of approximately 60% demonstrate the country’s commitment to managing plastic waste.

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  • Advisory Committee on National Account Statistics

    Advisory Committee on National Account Statistics

    Context:

    The Union government recently reconstituted the Advisory Committee on National Accounts Statistics chaired by Bishwabnath Goldar.

     

    About the National Account Statistics:

    • National Account Statistics (NAS) of India is a comprehensive statistical record that provides detailed information on the country’s economic activities, such as GDP and GVA. These statistics are compiled and published by the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) through the National Statistical Office (NSO).

     

    Terms of Reference of the  Advisory Committee:

    • Tasked to review the existing databases and advise on the inclusion of new data sources for improving the estimates of national accounts.
    • The panel will also advise on the base year for the national account and its alignment with related products such as WPI,CPI, and IIP.

     

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    Evolution of National Income Accounting:

    • Modern national accounts emerged only after the Great Depression Era in 1930s by Josiah Stamp in the UK, Simon Kuznets & John Maynard Keynes in the USA : 
    • Kuznets: Developed systematic methods for measuring GDP and national income in the U.S. His work laid the foundation for modern national income accounting.
    • John Maynard Keynes: Keynes emphasised the importance of aggregate demand in determining economic output and employment, influencing the development of national income accounts.
    • Post-World War II Era: The United Nations introduced the System of National Accounts ( SNA) in 1953, providing a standardised framework for national income accounting where GDP became the primary measure of national income.
    • India adopted the SNA in 1993 and shifted from GNP(gross national product) to GDP as the main measure of evaluating economic performance.

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    Changes made by India to its GDP calculation methodology in 2014-15 vis a vis 2004-05 in line with SNA:

    Base Year Change:

    • Pre-2015: The base year was 2004-05.
    • Post-2015: Updated to 2011-12 to better align with global practices and capture more accurate economic data.

    Manufacturing Sector Data:

    • Pre-2015: Relied on the Index of Industrial Production (IIP) and the Annual Survey of Industries (ASI), which covered over two lakh factories.
    • Post-2015: For a more detailed representation, we used annual accounts from firms filed with the Ministry of Corporate Affairs (MCA 21), covering around five lakh companies.

    GDP Calculation Method:

    • Pre-2015: Calculated GDP at factor cost.
    • Post-2015: Adopted GDP at market price and Gross Value Added (GVA) at basic price, including production costs, subsidies, and taxes.

     

    Labour Income Calculation:

    • Pre-2015: Treated all labour inputs equally.
    • Post-2015: Introduced “effective labour input” with different weights for owners, hired professionals, and helpers for a nuanced assessment.

    Agricultural Value Addition:

    • Pre-2015: Limited to farm produce.
    • Post-2015: Expanded to include livestock data.

    Financial Sector Income:

    • Pre-2015: Included few mutual funds and RBI estimates for Non-Government Non-Banking Finance Companies.
    • Post-2015: Broadened to include stockbrokers, stock exchanges, asset management companies, mutual funds, pension funds, and regulatory bodies like SEBI, PFRDA, and IRDA.

     

    Challenges for the Committee:

    • In the federal political framework, the Indian Statistical System is decentralised in character so that NAS necessarily have to depend on a large number of autonomous source agencies.
    • The Census, originally scheduled for 2021, has been postponed. Without the latest Census data, the accuracy and reliability of survey results may be compromised.
    • Adopting and implementing United Nations standards present significant challenges.
    • The increasing digitisation and globalisation of the economy would necessitate developing new methodologies to accurately capture economic activities.

     

    Informal sector:

    The present system does not accurately reflect the informal sector’s position and tends to overstate economic growth. Thus, incorporating informal sector data is a complex challenge for accurate measurement and analysis.

  • 86th Session of the Executive Committee of Codex Alimentarius Commission

    Context: India’s Participation in the 86th Session of the Executive Committee of Codex Alimentarius Commission, which was held at the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) headquarters in Rome.

     

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    Codex Alimentarius Commission:

    • An international body established by FAO and the World Health Organization (WHO) in May 1963.
    • Aims to protect consumer health and promote fair practices in food trade.
    • CCEXEC reviews proposals for new work and monitors the progress of standards development

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    Session and its Significance to India:

    • Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI), represented India.
    • India supported the advancement of standards development for spices such as small cardamom, turmeric, and vanilla to facilitate smoother international trade.
    • Backed the progression of standards for named vegetable oils, guidelines for controlling Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli, and the safe use and reuse of water in food production and processing.
    • India also championed the proposal for developing Codex guidance on food safety considerations related to the use of recycled materials in food packaging.
    • Shared FSSAI’s guidelines on recycling post-consumer PET for food contact applications, which were well-received.
    • Significance:
      • Reflects India’s dedication to establishing robust food safety standards.
      • Promotes fair practices in the global food trade.
      • Highlights India’s pivotal role in the international food industry.

     

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    Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI)

    • Established under the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006, under the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, 
    • The Government of India is the Administrative Ministry for the implementation.
    • Purpose: Lays down science-based standards for food articles. Regulates the manufacture, storage, distribution, sale, and import of food.
    • Objective: Ensures the availability of safe and wholesome food for human consumption.

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  • Draft Foreign Exchange Management Regulations, 2024

    Context: Reserve Bank of India (RBI) introduced Draft Foreign Exchange Management (Export and Import of Goods and Services) Regulations, 2024  to streamline  export-import transactions.

     

    Key Highlights of the draft regulation

    • Exporters declare full export value (FXV) of goods/services to specified authority.
      • FXV must be realised and repatriated to India within 9 months from date of shipment for goods and date of invoice for services.
    • Authorised Dealer (AD)banks can extend repatriation period for reasonable and sufficient cause shown by the exporter.
      • They can grant extensions to importers for delayed settlement of import payments or if overseas suppliers delay fulfilling obligations.
    • AD banks can allow set-offs of export receivables against import payables for the same counterparties, but not across goods and services.
    • They have to monitor progress of project exports and seek regular reports from exporters to facilitate corresponding payments.
    • No advance remittance for gold and silver imports will be permitted without RBI approval, except for qualified jewellers importing through the India International Bullion Exchange.
    • Exporters with outstanding export proceeds beyond 2 years will be ‘caution listed’ by AD banks in Export Data Processing and Monitoring System (EDPMS).
      • AD banks must remove exporters from the caution list once all outstanding proceeds are realised.
    • Caution listed exporters can only undertake exports against advance payment or irrevocable letter of credit.

     

    Significance of the Draft Regulations

    • Aims to enhance ease of doing business, benefiting small exporters & importers.
    • Grants AD banks authority to offer faster and efficient services to their foreign exchange clients.
    • Aligns with progressive liberalisation policies under the Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA) for foreign exchange transactions.

     

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    Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA), 1999:

    • FEMA, which replaced the Foreign Exchange Regulation Act (FERA) of 1973, was implemented on June 1, 2000.
    • It addresses procedures, formalities, and regulations concerning foreign exchange transactions in India.
    • It classifies offences related to foreign exchange as civil offences.
    • The Enforcement Directorate is FEMA’s head office, located in Delhi.

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  • Government plans a PLI scheme to boost critical mineral recycling and support the circular economy

    Government plans a PLI scheme to boost critical mineral recycling and support the circular economy

    Context: The Ministry of Mines is in the early stages of developing a Production Linked Incentive (PLI) program aimed at enhancing the recycling of critical minerals in India, to promote a circular economy and strengthen local supply chains.

     

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    Production Linked Incentive Scheme:

    • PLI scheme is an Initiative by the Government of India to incentivise domestic industries to increase local production.
    • Aims to: Foster the emergence of specialised products tailored to specific target audiences. Reduce import bills by promoting local manufacturing.
    • Keeping in view India’s vision of becoming ‘Atmanirbhar’, PLI Schemes for 14 key sectors have been announced with an outlay of Rs. 1.97 lakh crore (over US$26 billion) to enhance India’s Manufacturing capabilities and Exports.

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    • The proposed PLI scheme is in line with policy recommendations from NITI Aayog and supports the Battery Waste Management Rules (BWMR) 2022, which mandate phased recycling of lithium-ion batteries used in electric vehicles starting from 2026. The PLI scheme, currently under development, aims to target e-waste recycling, often referred to as “urban mining,” to recover critical minerals.
    • Implementation Strategy: Similar to existing PLI schemes, incentivizes production of recycled critical minerals for secondary use.
    • Promotes investment in advanced recycling technologies and infrastructure.
    • Discussions on whether incentives should prioritise high-purity minerals suitable for primary reuse or include broader recycling approaches like black mass (e-waste containing multiple minerals).

     

     

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    Battery Waste Management Rules (BWMR) 2022:

    • Published by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India on 24th August, 2022. 
    • Aim to ensure environmentally sound management of all types of batteries. 
    • The rules function based on Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR)  
      • where the producers (including importers) of batteries are responsible for collection and recycling/refurbishment of waste batteries and use of recovered materials from wastes into new batteries.

    [/stextbox]

    • NITI Aayog Recommendations Advocates for a comprehensive PLI scheme aligning with state incentives and Advanced Chemistry Cell (ACC) PLI schemes for cell manufacturers.
      • Emphasises parameters like recovery efficiency and domestic utilisation benchmarks for recycled minerals.
    • Market Response: Urgency in incentivizing critical mineral recycling heightened by poor investor response to recent mineral block auctions.

     

     

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    Circular Economy:

    • A system where materials are continuously reused and regenerated, aiming to eliminate waste entirely and restore natural systems.
    • In a circular economy, products and materials circulate through maintenance, reuse, refurbishment, remanufacture, recycling, and composting.
      • aiming to address climate change, biodiversity loss, waste, and pollution by reducing reliance on finite resources.
    • The circular economy is based on three principles:
      • Eliminate waste and pollution
      • Circulate products and materials (at their highest value)
      • Regenerate nature
    • Benefits:
      • Offers resilience, promotes innovation, creates economic opportunities, and benefits the environment and society as a whole.

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  • RBI’s surplus transfer to the Government

    RBI’s surplus transfer to the Government

    Context : RBI announced last month that it is transferring a sizable dividend to the government, significantly more than what was anticipated. Additionally, the contingency risk buffer has been raised to 6.5% from the previous 6%.

     

    RBI surplus and Transfer of Surplus

    • Surplus is the net income obtained after subtracting total expenditures from total income. From this surplus, provisions are made to address monetary and financial stability risks, as well as credit and operational risks.
    • Transfer of Surplus: The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) transfers its surplus to the government in accordance with Section 47 of the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934.
    • Determination of Surplus : 
      • Is Done on the basis of the Economic Capital Framework (ECF) recommended by the governor Bimal Jalan committee.
      • This committee advised the RBI to maintain a Contingent Risk Buffer (CRB) between 5.5% and 6.5% of its balance sheet

     

     


    Reasons for the increase in RBI’s surplus:

    • Higher Income from Foreign Currency Assets: The RBI’s investments in foreign assets such as bonds, treasury bills, and central bank deposits have generated higher returns due to favourable global market conditions.
      • RBI sold securities worth $153 bn in the forex market in FY 24.
      • RBI has invested $240.6 billion in US Treasuries.
    • Increased Earnings from Domestic Securities
    • Exchange Rate Gains: Depreciation of the Indian rupee can lead to revaluation gains on the RBI’s foreign currency assets, boosting overall income.
    • Efficient Management of Borrowings for central and state governments can lead to reduced costs and increased income from associated activities.
    • Rise in Commission and Fees and Reduction in Expenditure
    • Short-term Lending: Increased income from short-term lending operations, such as lending to banks and other financial institutions, can enhance the surplus.

     

    Benefits for the government from the transfer

    • Increased Capital Expenditure (CAPEX)– The surplus transfer provides fiscal stimulus to the government to increase its allocations to roads, railways, and defence projects.
    • However, non sustainable capex (not essential for growth) should be avoided.Ex. Using Rs 1.6 lakh crore to revitalise telecom MTNL and BSNL, is not critical.
    • Reduced borrowing and Fiscal Consolidation– The stimulus transfer ensures fiscal deficit reduction remains in sync with the committed target of 4.5% by FY26(as per FRBM act 2003 amendment) as it provides a fiscal space of 0.3%of GDP.
    • Covering the disinvestment target– The Govt has set an ambitious divestment target of ₹50,000 crore for FY25.The surplus provides a safety revenue cover to the government in case of any potential miss this year.
    • Boost to Bond Markets: Lower borrowing could lead to softer G-Sec yields, reducing the government’s borrowing costs, as bond yields and prices move inversely.


    Way Forward

    • Increasing Tax-to-GDP Ratio: The government must minimise dependence on central bank transfers and public-sector dividends, focusing on effective fiscal management to raise the tax-to-GDP ratio.
    • GST Rate Rationalisation: Urgent steps are required to simplify GST rates and slabs via the GST Council, aiming to enhance government tax revenues.
  • Alaska’s Glaciers Nearing Irreversible Tipping Point

    Alaska’s Glaciers Nearing Irreversible Tipping Point

    Context: A recent study shows that major icefields spanning the United States Alaska and Canada’s British Columbia have been melting at a rapid rate since 2005, and may reach an irreversible tipping point sooner than expected.

    • The research, published in Nature Communications, centred on the Juneau Icefield in Alaska.

     

    The Juneau Icefield straddles the boundary between Alaska and British Columbia, Canada. 

    • This vast ice field plays a crucial role in regulating sea levels, freshwater supply, and local ecosystems. However, its glaciers are now at a critical point.
    • The researchers attributed the temperature rise to a shift towards predominantly positive values in the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) since 1976.
    • The increasing Equilibrium Line Altitude (ELA) contributes to glacier volume loss.

     

    Key Highlights

    • Alaska’s large icefields could raise global sea levels by 46.4 millimetres if fully melted, with about 25% of global glacier ice loss.
      • Annual ice (66.7 billion tonnes) suggests potential disappearance within 250 years if current trends continue.
    • In 2019, the Juneau Icefield in Alaska consisted of 1,050 glaciers spanning 3,816.3 square kilometres.
      • The research highlighted that glacier retreat accelerated dramatically from 2015 to 2019, being five times faster compared to the period from 1948 to 1979.
      • 100% of the glaciers mapped in 2019 have downsized relative to their position in 1770, and 108 glaciers have vanished entirely.
    • Acceleration Since 2010: The research team analysed records dating back to 1770. The rate of ice loss doubled during this period, reaching 5.91 cubic kilometres per year.

     

    Implications: The concern lies in the possibility of reaching an irreversible tipping point. 

    • Once glaciers retreat beyond a certain threshold, they may continue to shrink even if climate conditions are stable.
    • Alaskan icefields, especially flat plateau icefields are particularly vulnerable. Their extensive surface area means that accelerated melting affects a large portion of the ice.

     

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    Tipping points

    According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), tipping points are ‘critical thresholds in a system that, when exceeded, can lead to a significant change in the state of the system, often with an understanding that the change is irreversible.’

    • These are important indicators of environmental vulnerability and the potential for catastrophic change in Earth’s systems.
    • Examples include melting permafrost, melting ice sheets and glaciers, and ocean circulation patterns.

    Key Recommendations:

    • Phase out fossil fuels and land use emissions now.
    • Strengthen adaptation and loss and damage governance.
    • Include tipping points in Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) and global stocktake process.
    • Coordinate policy efforts to trigger positive tipping points: Policy mandates in high-emitting sectors such as power, road transport, green hydrogen/ammonia and food.

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  • Lenacapavir Shows Promising Results in Preventing HIV Among Young Women

    Lenacapavir Shows Promising Results in Preventing HIV Among Young Women

    Context:

    The recent large clinical trial in South Africa and Uganda for lenacapavir, a new pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) drug, shows injection twice a year is 100% effective against  HIV infection.

     

    More on news:

    • The trial focussed on women aged 16 to 25, a group particularly vulnerable to HIV infection.
    • The trial tested whether a six-month injection of lenacapavir would provide better protection against HIV infection than two other drugs, PrEP drugs, Truvada (F/TDF) and Descovy (F/TAF). both daily pills.
      • Lenacapavir (Len LA): A fusion capsid inhibitor administered subcutaneously every six months, which disrupts the HIV capsid, a protein shell essential for viral replication.
      • Truvada (F/TDF): A daily PrEP pill widely used for over a decade.
      • Descovy (F/TAF): A newer daily pill with superior pharmacokinetic properties compared to Truvada.
      • All three medications are pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) drugs.

     

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    Lenacapavir:

    • It is a drug for the treatment of HIV.
    • It is also being studied as an investigational drug to prevent HIV infection.
    • It belongs to a group of HIV drugs called capsid inhibitors.

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    Significance:

     

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    UNAIDS Target:

    • It is leading the global effort to end AIDS as a public health threat by 2030 as part of the Sustainable Development Goals.

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    • Offering a new, highly effective tool that could simplify PrEP regimens for young women who find daily medication challenging due to social and structural barriers. The trial will continue in an “open label” phase where participants are informed of their assigned PrEP and can choose their preferred option. 
    • The success of lenacapavir could significantly impact global HIV prevention efforts and help meet UNAIDS targets.

     

    National AIDS and STD Control Programme Phase-V (2021-2026):

    • NACP Phase-V: Central Sector Scheme fully funded by the Government of India with an outlay of Rs 15,471.94 crore.
    • Goal: Attain UN Sustainable Development Goals 3.3, aiming to end the HIV/AIDS epidemic as a public health threat by 2030.
    • Services: Prevention, detection, and treatment of HIV/AIDS and STIs.
    • Building on Previous Initiatives: HIV/AIDS Prevention and Control Act (2017), Test and Treat Policy, Universal Viral Load Testing, Mission Sampark, Community-Based Screening, Transition to Dolutegravir-based Treatment Regimen.
    • Setting up Sampoorna Suraksha Kendras (SSK) for providing services for those “at risk” for HIV and STIs, covering the prevention-test-treat-care continuum.

     

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    HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus):

    • It is an infection that attacks white blood cells, weakening the immune system and increasing susceptibility to infections like tuberculosis and certain cancers.
    • Transmission: Spread through body fluids (blood, breast milk, semen, vaginal fluids) from an infected person. Can also be transmitted from mother to child during pregnancy, delivery, or breastfeeding. 
      • Not spread through casual contact like kissing or sharing food.
    • AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome): The most severe phase of HIV infection, characterised by a very weakened immune system and severe illnesses.
    • Prevention:  
      • Condom Use, Testing: Regular HIV and STI testing,  Medical Male Circumcision
      • Harm Reduction: Services for people who inject/use drugs.
    • Medications:
      • PrEP (Pre-exposure Prophylaxis): Antiretroviral drugs taken before potential exposure.
      • PEP (Post-exposure Prophylaxis): Antiretroviral drugs taken after potential exposure.
      • Dapivirine Vaginal Rings and Injectable Cabotegravir: Long-acting prevention methods.

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  • Technology Development Fund (TDF) scheme Promoting ‘Atma Nirbharta’ in Defence

    Technology Development Fund (TDF) scheme Promoting ‘Atma Nirbharta’ in Defence

    Context: The TDF scheme is instrumental in advancing ‘Atma Nirbharta’ in the defence sector, encouraging start-ups and MSMEs to develop capabilities in advanced technology.

     

    The Technology Development Fund : 

    • TDF scheme is a flagship program of the Ministry of Defence. 
    • It is executed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) under the ‘Make in India’ initiative.
    • It aims to enhance capabilities in cutting-edge technology and promote self-reliance (‘Atma Nirbharta’) in the defence sector.
    • This is achieved by encouraging the participation of public and private industries, particularly start-ups and MSMEs.
    • To date, 77 projects worth over Rs 300 crore have been sanctioned and successful realisation of 27 defence technologies have been done under the scheme.

     

    • Objectives of the TDF Scheme
        • Grant in Aid to Indian industries, including MSMEs, start-ups, and academic/scientific institutions. 
          • This funding is for developing defence and dual-use technologies not available in the Indian defence industry.
        • Engage private industries in designing and developing military technology, supporting them with grants.
        • Concentrate on research, design, and development of niche technologies being developed for the first time in the country.
        • Establish a bridge among the Armed Forces, research organisations, academia, and private sector entities.
        • Support the futuristic technologies having a Proof of Concept and converting them into prototypes.
    • Funding: Projects up to INR 10 Crores will be considered for funding subject to a maximum of 90% of the total project cost in general. 
      • However, up to 100% funding may be considered under the scheme, on a case-to-case basis. 
    • Duration of project: Not exceed a development period of two years. 
    • Academia and Research Institution Involvement: Their work involvement cannot exceed 40% of the total efforts required. 

     

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    Success Stories: 

    • Combat Robotics, Pune, developed an Innovative Simulator for Unmanned Vehicles under Centre for Artificial Intelligence and Robotics (CAIR), DRDO
    • ChiStats Labs Private Limited, Pune developed: 
    • Virtual Sensors for Aero Gas Turbine Engine Health Monitoring and 
    • Tools for Data Assessment, Active Learning & Believability for Visual Data

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  • Emerging Threat: Snowblind Banking Malware

    Emerging Threat: Snowblind Banking Malware

    Emerging Threat: Snowblind Banking Malware

     

    Context:

    A new banking malware called ‘Snowblind’ is targeting Android users to steal banking credentials. 

     

    About Snowblind Malware:

    • Snowblind exploits a built-in security feature called ‘seccomp’ to bypass anti-tamper protection in apps handling sensitive information.
    • It repackages apps to avoid detection of accessibility features, allowing it to extract login credentials and gain remote access.
    • Snowblind injects code to evade seccomp’s security measures, enabling it to use accessibility services to monitor victims’ screens remotely.
    • The malware can disable biometric and two-factor authentication, typically used by banking apps for enhanced security.
    • Snowblind infects users who download apps from untrusted sources.
    • It is predominantly active in Southeast Asia, according to security firm Promon.

     

     

    What is Malware:

     

     

    • Malware, short for malicious software, is created by cybercriminals (often referred to as hackers) to infiltrate computer systems, steal data, and potentially cause damage.
    • It includes various types such as viruses, worms, Trojan horses, spyware, adware, and ransomware.
    • India has been hit by several recent cyber attacks, causing disruptions across critical services and sparking widespread concern:
      • AIIMS Attack In 2023, Telangana and Andhra Pradesh Power Utilities, UHBVN Ransomware Attack, WannaCry, Mirai Botnet Malware Attack,Petya, BSNL Malware Attack.

     

  • IEEE Approves IIT Bombay’s Network Standard

    IEEE Approves IIT Bombay’s Network Standard

    Context: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) approves wireless network architecture for affordable broadband access in rural areas developed at IIT Bombay.

     

    More on News: 

    • Mobile devices are integral for communication, financial transactions, and Internet access. Their connectivity relies on cellular (mobile) wireless networks.
    • IIT Bombay has been developing affordable rural connectivity solutions that form the basis of the 2061-2024 standard.
    • The standard defines a wireless network architecture for affordable broadband access in rural areas.

     

    Cellular network

    • A cellular network, such as a 5G network, includes a set of network equipment connected by communication links. 
    • They work together to move data between different devices and to other networks, e.g., the Internet. 
    • It can be divided into two sub-networks: Access network (AN) and Core network (CN).
    • Access Network (AN): Includes base stations providing wireless connectivity to mobile devices in specific coverage areas. 
      • These towers, equipped with antennae, are strategically placed across regions by network operators.
    • Core Network (CN): Centralised equipment connecting to external networks such as the Internet. 
      • Linked to base stations via optical fibre (backhaul), it facilitates crucial data transmission and supports user mobility. 
      • All data, even from nearby users, must pass through both the base station and CN to reach its destination.

     

    Impediments to Rural Connectivity:

    • Income Disparity: Lower rural incomes hinder affordability of mobile services.
    • Population Density: Sparse rural populations are clustered in villages spread across wide areas.
    • Infrastructure Challenges: Cost & feasibility hinder fibre optic deployment in remote regions.
    • Urban-Rural Digital Divide: India has a tele-density gap between urban (127%) and rural (58%) areas.

     

     

     

    IEEE 2061-2024 Standard (Frugal 5G network)

    • This standard outlines an architecture for a low mobility, energy-efficient network designed for affordable broadband access. 
    • It includes a wireless middle-mile network, an access network, and the necessary control and management functions. 

     

    • Key Features of IEEE 2061-2024 Standard
      • Heterogeneous AN: Comprises different types of base stations, including macro base stations (macro-BS) for large coverage areas and Wi-Fi for high-speed connectivity within villages.
      • Seamless Connectivity: Allows devices to switch from Wi-Fi to macro-BS without service disruption, due to integrated AN control functionality.
      • Direct and Alternate Internet Paths: Provides a direct connection to the Internet from AN, bypassing the CN for stationary users, and enabling direct communication between nearby users within the AN.

     

    • Multi-hop Wireless Middle-Mile Network:  IEEE-2061 standard proposes a cost-effective middle-mile network using technologies like satellites or long-range Wi-Fi, eliminating need for optical fibre in remote areas.

     

    • Benefits of IEEE 2061-2024 Standard
      • Provide cost-effective connectivity solutions for rural populations.
      • Offers a flexible and scalable mobile network, accommodating legacy and new technologies (4G, 5G, 6G, Wi-Fi).
      • Integrated AN control functionality helps avoid issues like call drops in a heterogeneous network.
      • Direct routing within the AN for nearby users enhances network efficiency, similar to direct regional travel.
  • Megafauna Extinctions

    Megafauna Extinctions

    Context: Over the past 50,000 years, land vertebrate faunas have undergone significant losses, particularly of large species known as megafauna.

     

    Megafauna Extinctions: A Unique Phenomenon:

     

    • The selective loss of megafauna is unprecedented in the past 66 million years.
    • Climate Change Role: Previous climate change periods did not lead to such large, selective extinctions, suggesting climate played a minor role.
    • Impact Across Stable and Unstable Areas: Recent extinctions affected climatically stable and unstable areas equally, further diminishing climate as a primary cause.

     

    • Global Extinction Patterns
      • Widespread Extinction Events: Extinctions occurred globally but varied widely in timing and rate, correlated with human arrival or cultural advancements.
      • Varied Timelines: Extinctions occurred rapidly in some areas and over millennia in others, but all followed the presence of modern humans or cultural changes in Africa.

     

    • Human Hunting and Vulnerability of Megafauna:
      • Archaeological Evidence: Traps designed for large animals and isotope analyses of ancient human bones indicate widespread hunting of megafauna. Led to decrease in population.
      • Vulnerability Factors: Megafauna’s susceptibility to overexploitation was exacerbated by long gestation periods, low offspring production, and slow maturity.

     

     

     

     

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    Megafauna Overview:

    • Megafauna refers to large animals found in all terrestrial regions worldwide. Generally, they are defined as animals weighing over 40 kg or over a tonne. 
    • Term is used to denote the largest living and extinct terrestrial wild animals, such as giraffes, elephants, rhinoceroses, and hippopotamuses.
    • Importance:
      • Megafauna are crucial ecosystem engineers, shaping habitats through grazing and browsing, and regulating the abundance of smaller animals. 
      • Studying megafauna offers valuable insights into ecological systems, evolution, and conservation.

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    Ecological Impacts of Megafauna Loss:

    • Global Extinction Impact: Species went extinct on all continents and in diverse ecosystems, from tropical forests to arctic regions.
    • Adaptability of Extinct Species: Many extinct species thrived in various environments, suggesting climate change alone couldn’t explain their disappearance.
    • Ecological Consequences: Loss of megafauna significantly altered ecosystem structures and functions, affecting vegetation, seed dispersal, and nutrient cycling.

     

     

    Conservation and Restoration Efforts: Need for Conservation: The profound ecological consequences highlight the urgency for active conservation and restoration efforts.

    • Restoration Benefits: Reintroducing large mammals can help restore ecological balances and support biodiversity, crucial for ecosystems that evolved with megafauna richness.

     

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    The Cheetah Reintroduction Program:

    • It is an initiative by the Government of India aimed at reintroducing cheetahs to the country, following their local extinction in 1952.

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  • Species in News: Psilocybe Mushrooms

    Species in News: Psilocybe Mushrooms

    Context: In a recent publication in Mycologia, researchers from Stellenbosch University and citizen mycologists introduce two new species of psychoactive mushrooms in the genus Psilocybe from southern Africa.

     

    Key Findings

    • The two new species, Psilocybe ingeli and Psilocybe maluti. 
      • Psilocybe ingeli was first found in KwaZulu-Natal (2023), while Psilocybe maluti was discovered in the Free State and Lesotho (2021).
    • This discovery increases the number of known indigenous Psilocybe species in Africa to six.
    • Species are globally recognised as some of the most studied and well-known psychoactive mushrooms, with approximately 140 documented species.

     

     

    About Psilocybin (Magic Mushrooms)

    • Psilocybin (4-phosphoryloxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine) comes from certain types of mushrooms (shrooms, magic mushrooms) found on nearly every continent.
    • Type: Hallucinogenic fungi found worldwide (except Antarctica).
    • Active Compounds: Psilocybin and psilocin (cause mind-altering effects).
    • Form: Typically consumed dried or powdered.
      • When ingested, psilocybin undergoes conversion into psilocin.
    • Effect: Psychedelic/hallucinogenic, alters perception of reality.
    • It has a low level of toxicity but there are health risks associated with its use.
      • These include dangerous behaviour, psychosis, and accidental poisoning from consuming toxic mushrooms.
      • Individuals with mental health conditions or a family history of psychosis face an increased risk of adverse psychiatric reactions.
    • History: Used in Central American rituals for millennia (3000 BC).
    • Scientific Interest: Studied for decades for potential treatment of mental illness (depression, addiction, PTSD).
    • Modern Use: Increased research and individual curiosity about therapeutic and personal growth applications.
    • The production, sale, and possession of magic mushrooms are illegal in Canada unless authorised by Health Canada. 
      • Psilocybin and psilocin are controlled substances under the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act.

     

  • Zinc’s Groundbreaking Impact on Nitrogen Fixation and Climate-Friendly Farming

    Zinc’s Groundbreaking Impact on Nitrogen Fixation and Climate-Friendly Farming

    Context: Researchers in France have discovered the crucial role of zinc in promoting the health and productivity of legume crops. 

    • The study published in the Nature Journal conducted by Denmark’s Aarhus University in collaboration with the Polytechnic University of Madrid shows how zinc significantly impacts nitrogen fixation. 

     

    Key Highlights

    • Researchers discovered that legumes utilise zinc as a secondary signal to integrate environmental factors and regulate the efficiency of nitrogen fixation. 
    • They identified a genetic regulator called “Fixation Under Nitrate” (FUN) that acts as an “off switch” for nitrogen fixation in legumes. 
      • By studying 150,000 individual legume plants where specific genes were disabled to investigate how plants regulate the transition from nitrogen fixation to the uptake of soil nitrogen.
    • The study identified an essential transcription factor that controls the breakdown of nodules when soil nitrogen levels are elevated.

     

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    What are legume plants?

    • Legume is the fruit of plants in the pea family (Fabaceae).
    • It includes beans, chickpeas, cowpeas, lentils, peas, peanuts, soybeans, and tamarind.
    • Most legumes split open along two seams to release seeds. Some legumes, like peanuts and carobs, don’t naturally open.
    • It provides food for humans and animals, edible oils, fibres, and even raw materials for plastics.
    • Legume plants possess an exceptional ability to convert atmospheric nitrogen into usable nutrients through nitrogen fixation. 
    • However, this energy-intensive process is slowed when soil nitrate levels are already high due to natural processes or synthetic fertiliser applications.

    [/stextbox]

     

     

    Understanding Zinc’s Impact

    • Zinc in plants plays a crucial role in nitrogen fixation, a process essential for converting atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia, a vital nutrient for plant growth.
    • Legume crops form a symbiotic relationship with rhizobia, bacteria that fix atmospheric nitrogen within root nodules. 
      • These nodules are sensitive to various environmental factors including temperature, drought, flooding, soil salinity, and high levels of soil nitrogen.

     

     

     

    The Zinc Sensor: Fixation Under Nitrate (FUN)

    • FUN is a novel type of zinc sensor in legumes. It decodes zinc signals in nodules and regulates nitrogen fixation efficiency. When soil nitrogen concentrations are high, It controls nodule breakdown.
    • It is activated or deactivated based on cellular zinc levels, forming large filament structures that release active FUN when zinc is inadequate

     

     

     

     

    Implications for Agriculture

    • By understanding zinc’s role in regulating nitrogen fixation, researchers aim to optimise crop productivity and resilience.
    • Enhanced nitrogen fixation not only boosts crop yields but also reduces the dependency on synthetic fertilisers, thus mitigating environmental impact and production costs.

     

    Future Directions:

    • Researchers are delving deeper into the mechanisms through which zinc signals are generated and interpreted by FUN. 
    • This could lead to higher nitrogen delivery, increased crop yields, and a decreased reliance on synthetic fertilisers.
    • They are currently studying the performance of common legume crops like soybean and cowpea under conditions where FUN activity has been disrupted or lost.