Maratha Confederacy: Structure and Impact

Explore the rise and structure of the Maratha Confederacy, its leaders, battles, and decline. A must-read for UPSC Prelims & Mains history preparation.

The Maratha Confederacy: Structure and Impact is important for UPSC as it marks a key phase in India’s transition from Mughal to British rule. Emerging as a dominant force after the Mughal decline, the confederacy’s decentralised structure—with power shared among the Peshwas, Scindias, Holkars, Gaikwads, and Bhonsles—offers early insights into federalism and regional governance. It is directly relevant to the UPSC syllabus under modern Indian history and is frequently asked about in both Prelims and Mains. Studying it helps understand indigenous resistance, administrative innovation, and the internal divisions that facilitated British expansion, making it crucial for analysing political, military, and administrative developments in 18th-century India.

This blog traces the rise, structure, and significance of the Maratha Confederacy in 18th-century India. It begins with the emergence of Maratha power under Shivaji, followed by the development of a decentralised confederacy led by the Peshwas, Scindias, Holkars, Gaikwads, and Bhonsles.

Key themes include administrative innovations, military conquests, regional governance, and internal rivalries. The chapter highlights how Maratha expansion challenged Mughal dominance but later paved the way for British ascendancy due to internal divisions. It is vital for understanding early federal structures and indigenous resistance, making it highly relevant for UPSC preparation.

The Rise of the Marathas

Several factors contributed to the emergence of the Marathas in the 16th and 17th centuries. The geography of the Maratha region—characterised by hills and dense forests—instilled qualities of courage and adaptability in the people, making them skilled in guerrilla warfare. They also constructed numerous forts atop the mountains for strategic defense.

The Bhakti movement played a significant role in promoting religious unity in Maharashtra, while saints like Tukaram, Ramdas, Vaman Pandit, and Eknath helped foster social cohesion. Political unity was achieved under the leadership of Shivaji.

Many Marathas held key administrative and military positions under the Deccan Sultanates of Bijapur and Ahmadnagar. Prominent Maratha families, such as the Mores and Nimbalkars, were influential in the region. However, the foundation of a strong Maratha state is primarily credited to Shahji Bhonsle and his son, Shivaji.

Shivaji (1627–1680): Life, Influences, and Achievements

Early Life and Background

• Born in 1627 at Shivner, named Shiva after the local goddess Shivai.
• Belonged to the Bhonsle clan of Marathas.
• Father: Shahji Bhonsle – a military commander under the Nizam Shahi of Ahmadnagar, later served the Bijapur Sultanate.
• Mother: Jijabai – a devout and influential figure in shaping Shivaji’s personality. 
• Grew up under the guidance of Dadaji Kondadev (guardian and teacher).
• Strongly influenced by Bhakti saints like Tukaram, Guru Ramdas, Pir Shaikh Yacub, Hazrat Baba of Ratnagiri, and epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata

Early Career and Conquests

• Inherited the jagir of Poona in 1637 CE.
• Took full control in 1647 CE after Dadaji Kondadev’s death.
• Captured Torna Fort in 1646 CE and used the booty to build Raigarh Fort.
• Seized Kondana and Raigarh, and captured Javli from Maratha chief Chanda Rao More, becoming master of Mavala.
• By 1654 CE, had control over forts in the Western Ghats and Konkan coast.
• Fought off invading Adil Shahi armies along with his brother, securing his father’s release.
• Even raided Portuguese Daman, receiving tribute from them.

Major Battles and Military Feats

• Battle of Pratapgarh (1659 CE): Defeated and killed Afzal Khan using tiger claws—gained heroic status.
• Battle of Kolhapur: Defeated Rustemjaman (Adil Shahi general), alarming Aurangzeb.
• Battle of Pavankhind (1660 CE): Fought Siddi Johar; truce led to recognition of Shivaji’s kingdom by Bijapur through Shahji. 

Conflict with the Mughals

• In 1660 CE, Shaista Khan was sent by Aurangzeb; Shivaji lost Poona but retaliated in 1663 CE with a bold night raid—injuring Khan and killing his son.
• In 1664 CE, sacked the rich port of Surat, enraging the Mughals.
• Treaty of Purander (1665 CE):
  • Signed after siege by Raja Jai Singh of Amber.
  • Shivaji surrendered 23 of 35 forts; retained 12 under Mughal service.
  • Mughals recognised his control over parts of Bijapur.
  • Declining personal service, his son Sambhaji received a mansab of 5000.

Imprisonment and Escape

• Visited Agra in 1666 CE with Sambhaji; was humiliated and placed under house arrest by Aurangzeb.
• Escaped disguised as a palanquin bearer.
• Though exasperated, Aurangzeb granted him the title of Raja and Jagir of Berar.

Later Conquests and Coronation

• Maintained a low profile between 1667–1669 CE, rebuilding military strength.
• In 1670 CE, recaptured lost forts and sacked Surat again.
• Battle of Salher (1672 CE): Defeated the Mughals—first open-field victory of Marathas.
• In 1674 CE, crowned as Chatrapathi (Maharaja) at Raigarh.
• Launched a southern expedition (1676 CE), capturing Ginjee and Vellore, extending Maratha power into the Carnatic.

Legacy and Death

• Died in 1680 CE at age 53 due to fever.
• Ruled as an independent king for only six years, yet laid the foundation of the Maratha Empire, which lasted over a century.
• Promoted Sanskrit, respected all religions, and opposed forced conversions.

Sambhaji (c. 1681–1689 CE)

• Succeeded Shivaji but faced opposition from several Maratha chiefs who supported his brother Rajaram instead, leading to internal divisions that weakened Maratha unity.
• Known as ‘Kalusha’, meaning instigator of conflict.
• Provided shelter to Prince Akbar, Aurangzeb’s rebellious son.
• In 1689 CE, Sambhaji was defeated at Sangameshwar by Mughal commander Muqarrab Khan and was executed along with his advisor Kavi Kalash.
• After the fall of Raigarh Fort, his wife Yesubai and son Shahu were captured by the Mughals.

Rajaram (c. 1689–1700 CE)

• Younger brother of Sambhaji; did not formally ascend the throne but ruled in the name of his nephew Shahu.
• Moved the Maratha capital to Ginjee to continue resistance; after its fall, shifted to Vishalgad and later Satara.
• Delegated royal authority to Peshwa Ramchandra Pant (Hukumat Panha).
• Under his leadership, commanders like Ramchandra Pant, Prahlad Niraji, and Dhanaji Jadhav led effective campaigns against the Mughals.
• Passed away in 1700 CE, after which his widow Tarabai assumed power on behalf of her infant son Shivaji II.
• In 1707 CE, the Mughal general Zulfiqar Khan released Shahu, hoping to spark internal conflict among the Marathas.
• Two rival factions emerged:
  • Tarabai’s faction in Satara.
  • Shahu’s faction, supported by Dhanaji Jadhav and Balaji Vishwanath.
• Shahu defeated Tarabai at the Battle of Khed (1707 CE), leading to Tarabai’s retreat to Kolhapur and the foundation of the Kolhapur royal line.

Shahu (c. 1707–1749 CE)

• His reign marked the formal division of the Maratha state into Satara (under himself) and Kolhapur (under Tarabai), recognised through the Treaty of Warna (1731 CE).
• Saw the rise of Chitpavan Brahmin Peshwas, who gradually assumed real political power, reducing the Bhonsle kings to symbolic rulers.
• Balaji Vishwanath, the first powerful Peshwa, was instrumental in Shahu’s consolidation of power.
• In 1719 CE, on Balaji’s advice, Shahu supported the Sayyid brothers in deposing Mughal emperor Farukhsiyar, and secured the release of his mother.
• Subsequently, Shahu declared Maratha independence (Swarajya), laying the foundation for Maratha expansion under the Peshwas.

Rajaram II / Ramraja (c. 1749–1777 CE)

• He was the adopted son of Shahu, introduced by Tarabai as her grandson (son of Rajaram) to claim authority after Shahu’s death.
• Later, when he was no longer politically useful, Tarabai discredited him, calling him an imposter.
• Despite this, Peshwa Baji Rao retained him as the nominal Chhatrapati.
• During his time, the real power shifted completely to the Peshwas, and the Chhatrapati became a figurehead.

Royal House of Kolhapur

Shivaji II (c. 1710–1714 CE)

• Son of Rajaram and Tarabai.
• Ruled under the regency of his mother, Tarabai.

Sambhaji II (c. 1714–1760 CE)

• Son of Rajaram and his second wife Rajabai.
• Overthrew Shivaji II and Tarabai to seize power.
• Signed the Treaty of Warna (1731 CE) with Shahu, officially recognizing the division of the Bhonsle dynasty into the Satara and Kolhapur branches.
• The British launched expeditions against Kolhapur in 1765 and 1792 CE.
• After the fall of the Maratha Confederacy, Kolhapur entered into a treaty with the British in 1812 CE.

The Office of the Peshwa (c. 1640–1818 CE)

• The term ‘Peshwa’ comes from Persian, meaning foremost, and was initially used by Muslim rulers in the Deccan.
• Among the Marathas, it referred to the Prime Minister, a position that later evolved into the actual holder of power.

Key Early Peshwas (Before Balaji Vishwanath)

• Sonopant Dabir (c. 1640–1652 CE)
  • Regarded as the first unofficial Peshwa.
• Shyampant Kulkarni Ranzekar (c. 1652–1657 CE)
  • Served under Shahji Bhonsle.
• Moropant Trimbak Pingle (c. 1657–1683 CE)
  • Appointed by Shivaji, played a significant role in administration and military affairs.
• Moreshwar Pingale (c. 1683–1689 CE)
  • Peshwa under Sambhaji.
• Ramchandra Pant Amatya (c. 1689–1708 CE)
  • Served under Rajaram.
  • When Rajaram fled to Ginjee (1689 CE), he entrusted him with Hukumat Panha (royal authority).
  • Effectively managed the state during Mughal pressure, local betrayals, and economic difficulties.
  • Functioned as a proxy ruler, supported by generals like Santaji Ghorpade and Dhanaji Jadhav.
  • In 1698 CE, stepped down when Rajaram appointed Tarabai as Peshwa and was given a top administrative role.
  • Authored the Adnyapatra, a manual on warfare, fort maintenance, and governance.
  • After Shahu’s return in 1707 CE, he was marginalised due to his loyalty to Tarabai.

Balaji Vishwanath Bhatt (Peshwa: c. 1713–1719 CE)

• Belong to the Bhatt family of Shri Vardhan, located in the Konkan region.
• Known for making the Peshwa post hereditary and turning it into the most powerful office in the Maratha administration.
• Played a crucial role in the Maratha civil war by uniting Maratha leaders behind Shahu, helping him become Chhatrapati.
• In 1719 CE, secured imperial recognition of Shahu from Mughal emperor Farrukh Siyar.
  • Gained the right to collect Chauth and Sardeshmukhi from six Mughal provinces in the Deccan, including Carnatic and Mysore.
• Negotiated successfully with Kanhoji Angre, former ally of Tarabai, and brought him into Shahu’s service as Sarkhel (Admiral).
• Assisted the Saiyyad Brothers in overthrowing Farrukh Siyar in Delhi.
• Was the ancestor of notable later figures like Nana Sahib and the Chapekar brothers.

Baji Rao I (Peshwa: c. 1720–1740 CE)

• Eldest son of Balaji Vishwanath; appointed Peshwa at just twenty years old.
• Revered as the greatest of all nine Peshwas, also called “Thorale Baji Rao” (Elder Baji Rao).
• Never lost a battle during his career; Maratha power reached its peak under his leadership.
• Master of guerrilla warfare, second only to Shivaji.
• Advocated for northward expansion, aiming to fly the Maratha flag from River Krishna to Attock (near the Indus).

Key Achievements and Events:

• Promoted the idea of Hindu-pad-padshahi (Hindu empire) to rally Hindu chiefs against the Mughal Empire.
• Defeated Nizam-ul-Mulk at the Battle of Palkhed and again at Bhopal, forcing him to agree to Maratha rights of Chauth and Sardeshmukhi in the Deccan.
• In 1722 CE, captured Salsette and Bassein from the Portuguese.
• Moved the capital from Satara to Pune in 1728 CE, making it the political center of Maratha power.

Confederacy System:

• Introduced the Maratha confederacy system:
  • Divided regions among powerful Maratha chiefs, each with autonomous administration.
  • Led to the rise of prominent Maratha dynasties:
    • Gaekwads in Baroda
    • Bhonsles in Nagpur
    • Holkars in Indore
    • Scindias in Gwalior
    • Peshwas in Poona (Pune)

Balaji Baji Rao I / Nana Sahib I (Peshwa: c. 1740–1761 CE)

• Succeeded his father Baji Rao I as Peshwa at the age of nineteen; appointed by Chhatrapati Shahu.
• After Shahu’s death in 1749 CE without an heir, Balaji Baji Rao imprisoned the nominated successor Rajaram II (Ramraja) at Satara.
• With the Sangola Agreement (c.1750 CE), real authority passed to the Peshwa, making the Chhatrapati a nominal head.

Major Events and Achievements:

• Defeated Nawab Alivardi Khan of Bengal; at its height, the Maratha Empire controlled about one-third of the Indian subcontinent.
• In 1752 CE, entered into a treaty with the Mughal Emperor:
  • The Marathas agreed to protect the Mughal Empire from all enemies.
  • In return, they would collect chauth from the northwestern provinces, and receive the entire revenue of Agra and Ajmer.
• Responding to this agreement, the Marathas fought Ahmad Shah Abdali in the Third Battle of Panipat (1761 CE).
  • The Marathas faced a devastating defeat, and thousands, including top generals, perished.
  • Balaji Baji Rao died shortly afterward, grieving the catastrophic loss.

Consequences:

• The defeat at Panipat marked the end of unified Maratha expansion.
• The empire became fragmented, with the Bhonsle family splitting into branches:
  • Kolhapur, Nagpur, and
  • The main branch at Satara in the Deccan.

Madhav Rao I (Peshwa: c. 1761–1772 CE)

• Took over after his father Balaji Baji Rao’s death.
• A brilliant and efficient administrator, he revived Maratha power within just 11 years.

Key Achievements:

• Defeated the Nizam of Hyderabad.
• Forced Haidar Ali of Mysore to pay tribute.
• Re-established Maratha dominance in northern India:
  • Defeated the Rohillas.
  • Subdued the Rajput states and Jat chiefs.
• In 1772 CE, he restored Mughal Emperor Shah Alam to the throne in Delhi.
• Oversaw the formation of semi-independent Maratha states, notably:
  • Gaekwads (Baroda),
  • Holkars (Indore),
  • Scindias (Gwalior).

Raghunath Rao (c. 1772–1773 CE)

• After Madhav Rao’s death in 1772 CE, a power struggle began.
• Raghunath Rao, younger brother of Nana Sahib (Balaji Baji Rao), vied for power against Narayan Rao, younger brother of Madhav Rao.

Narayan Rao (c.1772–1773 CE)

• Became Peshwa in 1772.
• Assassinated in 1773 on the orders of his uncle, Raghunath Rao.

Raghunath Rao (c.1773–1774 CE)

• Took control of the Peshwa position after Narayan Rao’s death.
• Lacked official recognition from the Mughal Emperor.
• Was eventually removed from power.

Sawai Madhav Rao (c.1774–1795 CE)

• The infant son of Narayan Rao made Peshwa at just 40 days old.
• Real power was held by Nana Phadnavis, who governed with the help of the Barbhai Council (12-member regency group).

Major Developments:

• Raghunath Rao, denied authority, sought British support, triggering the First Anglo–Maratha War (1775–1782).
• In the Battle of Talegaon (1776), Nana Phadnavis defeated the British.
• Treaty of Purandhar (1776): British dropped support for Raghunath Rao.
• Treaty of Salbai (1782): Status quo restored; British retained Salsette.
• After Nana Phadnavis’ death in 1800, Maratha political strength rapidly declined.

Baji Rao II (c.1796–1818 CE)

• Son of Raghunath Rao and the final Peshwa.
• Known for his weak leadership and poor decisions.

Key Events:

• Signed the Treaty of Bassein (1802), allowing British dominance over Maratha territories and much of western and central India.
• Defeated in the Third Anglo–Maratha War (1818).
• The Peshwa’s lands in central Maharashtra were annexed into the British Bombay Presidency.
• Baji Rao II was removed from power and granted a pension.

Nana Sahib (Dhondu Pant)

• Adopted son of Baji Rao II.
• Played a prominent role in the Revolt of 1857 against British rule.

Maratha Confederacy

Gaikwads of Baroda

• The Gaikwads gained prominence around 1720 CE. Initially, they were subordinate to both the Bhonsles and the Dabhade family.
• After Shahu’s death, with increased authority of the Peshwas, their status improved.
• By the early 1750s, they secured official rights to a large portion of Gujarat’s revenues.
• Established their capital at Baroda.
• In 1752 CE, they drove out the Mughal governor from Ahmedabad, shifting the regional trade dynamics.
• Damaji Gaikwad (r. c.1768 CE) was a notable leader.
• His successor, Fateh Singh Gaikwad (r. 1771–1789 CE), asserted independence from the Peshwa in the late 1770s–early 1780s and negotiated with the British East India Company.
  • This led to rising British influence in Baroda’s affairs.
  • By c.1800 CE, the British controlled the Gaikwad succession process.
  • The Gaikwads became British-dependent rulers in the 19th century.
• Later, Sayaji Rao Gaikwad sponsored Dr. B.R. Ambedkar’s education.

Holkars of Indore

• The Holkars experienced a rapid rise from the 1730s, initially having limited political clout.
• Malhar Rao Holkar established control over chauth collections in Malwa, Khandesh, and eastern Gujarat, forming a strong base in Indore.
• His successors dominated major trade routes and centres like Burhanpur.
• His daughter-in-law, Ahilyabai Holkar, ruled from 1765 to 1794 CE, significantly enhancing the dynasty’s prestige.

Bhonsles of Nagpur

• Subordinate to the main Bhonsle line of Satara.
• Raghuji Bhonsle (r. 1727–1755 CE) led Maratha campaigns in Bengal and Bihar during the 1740s–50s.
• Successfully seized Orissa from Nawab Alivardi Khan.

Scindias of Gwalior

• Rose to power after the Third Battle of Panipat (1761 CE).
• Initially based in Ujjain, later shifted headquarters to Gwalior by the late 18th century.
• Mahadaji Scindia (r. 1761–1794 CE) was a skilled military leader who:
  • Built a European-style army with Hindu-Muslim troops and foreign officers.
  • Set up ordnance factories near Agra.
  • Was appointed Naib-i-Munaib (deputy regent) by Mughal emperor Shah Alam II in the 1780s.
  • Became highly influential in Delhi, Agra, Rajasthan, and Gujarat.
  • Maintained tense relations with Nana Phadnavis and the Holkars.
• His successor, Daulat Rao Scindia (r. 1794–1827 CE), failed to maintain his gains and lost territories to the British.

Importance of Mughal Symbolism

• Even as Mughal power waned, their titles, honours, and administrative terms remained prestigious.
• Mahadaji Scindia, after recapturing Gwalior, sought confirmation of his rule from the Mughal emperor.
• He fiercely protected Mughal titles like Amir al-Umara and Na’ib Wakil-i-Mutlaq.
• Few regional powers completely abandoned Mughal legitimacy during the 18th century.

Shivaji’s Administration

General Overview

• Shivaji was a skilled and visionary ruler who established a strong and efficient administrative system.
• His system was influenced by the Mughal model and the practices of Deccani rulers like Malik Ambar (Ahmadnagar) and Mahmud Gawan (Bahmani Kingdom).
• The Maratha state was called Swarajya or Mulk-e-Kadim.

I. Central Administration

1. Role of the King

• The king held supreme authority and closely supervised the functioning of the government.
• He was assisted by a council of eight ministers known as the Ashtapradhan, each in charge of a specific department.
• These posts were neither hereditary nor permanent, and officers were rotated frequently to ensure accountability.

2. Ashtapradhan Mandal (Council of Eight Ministers)

Except for Nyayadhish and Pandit Rao, all ministers were also expected to participate in military campaigns.

II. Administrative Chain of Command

• The bureaucratic order followed a descending pattern:
  Peshwa → Majumdar → Sachiv → Mantri

III. Ministerial Support Staff

Each Ashtapradhan minister had eight key assistants:

Many of these offices (e.g., Peshwa, Majumdar, Waqenavis, etc.) predated Shivaji and were used by earlier Deccani rulers. Shivaji reorganised and institutionalised them effectively.

Provincial and Local Administration

1. Shivaji’s provincial administration was influenced by the Mughal and Deccani models.
2. Provinces were called Prants, governed by a Subedar, and supervised by a Sarsubedar.
3. Each Prant was divided into Tarfs, administered by a Havaldar.
4. The Mauza (village) was the smallest administrative unit.
5. Law and order:
   • Faujdar: Police officer in rural areas.
   • Kotwal: Police officer in urban areas.
6. Kamvishdars:
   • Performance-based Brahmin officials in charge of local administration and revenue.
   • Handled tax assessment, record-keeping, legal cases, and reported local conditions.
   • The British later modelled the office of District Collector on this post.

Army

1. Shivaji had a well-organised standing army, with a strong emphasis on mobility and guerrilla warfare.
2. The Paga cavalry (30,000–40,000) was state-maintained and salaried:
   • Supervised by Havaldars, Naik was the lowest rank.
   • War horses were owned by the state.
3. Cavalry was of two types:
   • Bargirs: Armed and paid by the state.
   • Silahdars: Maintained by individual nobles.
4. Infantry:
   • Light and mobile, they often included Mavli foot soldiers.
   • Peasants served part-time: farming for 8 months and soldiering for 4 months.
5. Shivaji developed a navy and maintained around 240 forts by the end of his reign.
   • Each fort was controlled by three officers of equal rank (Sabnis, Kardadar, Sar-i-naubat) to prevent betrayal.

Revenue Administration

1. Revenue system based on Mughal and Deccani models (e.g., Malik Amber’s system).
2. Land classification:
   • Measured using a lathi (measuring rod).
   • Categories: Paddy fields, garden lands, hilly tracts.
3. Shivaji:
   • Reduced powers of hereditary Deshmukhs and Kulkarnis.
   • Appointed Karkuns as his own trusted revenue officials.
   • Discouraged revenue farming.
4. Used Modi script for administrative and revenue records.

Important Taxes

1. Chauth: 1/4th of land revenue collected from non-Maratha territories (Mughal or Deccan lands) in exchange for protection from Maratha raids.
2. Sardeshmukhi: An additional 10% levy on land revenue, claimed as hereditary right by the Marathas.

Anglo-Maratha Wars

First Anglo-Maratha War (1775–82)

• Triggered by succession disputes after Madhavrao’s death. 
• Raghunathrao allied with the British Bombay Presidency. 
• The war ended with the Treaty of Salbai (1782): peace for 20 years, English retained Salsette. 

Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–05)

• Started after Peshwa Bajirao II lost power and signed the Treaty of Bassein (1802) with the British. 
• Maratha chiefs (Sindhia, Bhonsle, Holkar) were defeated separately and signed subsidiary treaties. 
• Marked the beginning of British dominance in Maratha territories. 

Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–19)

• Peshwa Bajirao II revolted again, joined by other Maratha leaders. 
• British defeated all—Peshwa at Khirki, Bhonsle at Sitabuldi, Holkar at Mahidpur. 
• Peshwaship was abolished, Maratha confederacy dissolved, and India came under British paramountcy. 

Reasons for Maratha Defeat

1. Weak leadership: Later Maratha chiefs were selfish and incompetent. 
2. Loose confederacy: No unity among Maratha leaders. 
3. Inferior military structure: Poor artillery and discipline. 
4. Lack of economic vision: No industrial or trade foundation. 
5. British diplomacy and espionage: Superior strategy and intelligence network. 
6. Outdated outlook: Marathas lacked modern thinking and reforms. 

 Decline of the Maratha Empire

The Maratha Empire, which emerged as the most powerful force in India after the decline of the Mughal Empire, ultimately collapsed by the early 19th century, paving the way for British supremacy. Though it once had a pan-Indian presence from the Deccan to the north and from Gujarat to Bengal, internal weaknesses and external pressures culminated in its downfall.

Causes of the Decline

1. Internal Disunity and Factionalism

• The Maratha Confederacy was not a centralised empire but a loose alliance of powerful chiefs (e.g., Scindias of Gwalior, Holkars of Indore, Bhonsles of Nagpur, Gaekwads of Baroda).
• These chiefs prioritised their personal ambitions over the unity of the confederacy, often working at cross-purposes.
• There was no binding central authority after the death of Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao in 1761.

2. The Third Battle of Panipat (1761) – A Watershed Moment

• Ahmad Shah Abdali (Durrani), an Afghan ruler, launched a major invasion into northern India and clashed with the Marathas at Panipat.
• Led by Sadashiv Rao Bhau, the Maratha army suffered a massive defeat on 14 January 1761.

Consequences:

• Loss of over 100,000 troops, including elite soldiers and key leaders like Vishwasrao, the Peshwa’s son.
• Severely dented Maratha morale, disrupted northern expansion, and exhausted resources.
• Enabled reassertion of local Muslim rulers and foreign invaders.
• Though the Marathas made a political recovery under Madhavrao I, they never fully regained their earlier dominance.

3. Lack of Political Foresight

• Maratha leaders failed to understand the real nature of British imperialism.
• They were caught off guard by the British strategy of diplomacy, war, and annexation.
• The Treaty of Bassein (1802), signed by Peshwa Baji Rao II, was a major blunder as it invited British intervention into internal Maratha affairs. 

4. Incapable Leadership

• After the death of able leaders like Shivaji, Peshwa Baji Rao I, and Balaji Baji Rao, the later Peshwas were weak and lacked statesmanship.
• Peshwa Baji Rao II (1796–1818) was ineffective and often manipulated by the British and his own subordinates.
• Leaders like Holkar and Scindia had mutual rivalries, preventing coordinated defense against external threats. 

5. Weakness of Social and Economic Structure

• The Maratha social system was still feudal in nature, dependent on land grants and jagirs, and unable to mobilise resources in a sustained way.
• The burden of taxes like Chauth and Sardeshmukhi alienated the peasantry in conquered regions.
• There was no administrative innovation comparable to the Mughals or British. 

6. Jagirdari and Revenue Crisis

• The Jagirdari system, which rewarded military service with land revenue assignments, encouraged parochial interests and localism.
• These jagirdars acted as independent lords, weakening central authority.
• There was no uniform or efficient revenue system, leading to fiscal mismanagement. 

7. Failure in Naval and Technological Advancement

• The Marathas under Shivaji had once built a naval force, but it was not maintained or expanded.
• There was no focus on modernisation of artillery, logistics, or administrative systems. 

8. British Diplomatic Supremacy

• The British exploited rivalries among Maratha chiefs, signing treaties and aligning with one against the other.
• Their superior military organisation, training, discipline, and strategy consistently outclassed the Maratha forces.
• The Subsidiary Alliance system (introduced by Lord Wellesley) ensured British control even without direct annexation. 

9. Defeats in the Anglo-Maratha Wars

• The Marathas suffered decisive defeats in the three Anglo-Maratha Wars: 

• First Anglo-Maratha War (1775–82): The Marathas had the upper hand, but the British retained strategic advantages.
• Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–05): The British decisively defeated the Scindias and Bhonsles; Peshwa Baji Rao II became dependent on the British.
• Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–18): Ended Maratha independence; Peshwa deposed, and Maratha territories annexed.

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