Bhakti Movement & Sufism

Explore Bhakti Movement & Sufism for UPSC—key saints, philosophies, sects, and cultural impact. Ideal for GS I, Ethics, and Essay prep.

The Bhakti Movement and Sufism are important for UPSC as they played a key role in shaping India’s medieval socio-religious and cultural landscape. They challenged casteism, orthodoxy, and ritualism, promoting devotion, equality, and social harmony. Their inclusive teachings helped foster Hindu-Muslim unity and contributed richly to vernacular literature and regional cultures. These movements align with UPSC themes in GS Paper I (culture), Ethics (GS IV), and Essay, and are also frequently asked in Prelims for their factual and philosophical aspects. Their values remain relevant for understanding India’s composite culture and ethical traditions.

This compilation aims to present a comprehensive yet concise understanding of both traditions, covering their historical evolution, key philosophies, major saints, and socio-political impact. It is organised thematically and chronologically to aid students in building conceptual clarity and interlinking cultural developments with broader historical processes.

Bhakti Movement

The Bhakti Movement was a major cultural and social transformation in medieval India, often called a silent revolution. While early signs of devotion appeared in the Vedic period, true personal devotion emerged around the 6th century BCE with Buddhism and Jainism. Mahayana Buddhism and the Vishnu cult introduced more emotional worship, further encouraged during the Gupta period through temple-building and devotional literature.

The movement fully developed in South India between the 7th and 12th centuries CE, led by Shaiva Nayanars and Vaishnava Alvars. Supported by the Pallava, Pandya, and Chola rulers, they emphasised personal devotion over ritual, rejecting caste barriers and promoting inclusivity. Many Bhakti saints came from lower castes, included women, and used local languages to connect with the masses. Eventually, Bhakti ideas spread to North India, deeply shaping Indian religious and cultural traditions.

Bhakti Movement in North India

Development and Nature of the Bhakti Movement

• The Bhakti Movement in North India (12th–17th century CE) evolved differently from its southern counterpart, although it was partly a continuation of southern traditions.
• While both shared certain features, the idea of bhakti varied significantly among individual saints.
• The northern movement was shaped by the spread of Islam and the influence of Sufi teachings, leading to new socio-religious reforms.

 Islamic and Sufi Influence

• Core Islamic principles such as belief in one God (monotheism), social equality, universal brotherhood, and rejection of ritualism and caste deeply impacted Bhakti ideals.
• The teachings of Sufi saints inspired reformers like Ramananda, Kabir, and Guru Nanak.

 Debates on Origin

• Some scholars argue that the movement was a response to feudal exploitation and oppressive Brahman–Rajput dominance. This is evident in the anti-feudal tone of many Bhakti poems.
• Others believe that economic and social shifts in the 13th–14th centuries—such as a rise in urban artisanal production—created dissatisfaction among artisan groups, who then gravitated towards Bhakti for its emphasis on dignity and equality.

Central Message

• The movement emphasised devotion to God, spiritual equality, and personal surrender to a chosen divine figure.

 Two Major Trends

1. Saguna Bhakti (God with form and qualities):
   • Promoted by saints like Tulsidas.
   • Supported caste hierarchy, Brahmanical authority, and idol worship.
   • Advocated faith and surrender to a personal deity.
2. Nirguna Bhakti (formless, attribute-less God):
   • Preached by saints like Kabir and Guru Nanak.
   • Rejected the varna system, idol worship, and rituals.
   • Focused on inner spiritual experience and monotheism.
   • Draw from Vaishnavism, Nathpanthi practices, and Sufi ideas.
   • Their concept of God was formless, eternal, and ineffable.
   • Saints often acknowledged and referenced each other, reflecting shared ideological values.

Common Features of Both Traditions

• Stressed intense personal devotion and mystical love for God.
• Strongly criticised ritualism and priestly dominance.
• Used local languages and dialects instead of Sanskrit, making their teachings accessible to the masses.
• Many Bhakti saints came from lower social backgrounds, challenging traditional caste-based hierarchies.

Prominent Leaders of the Bhakti Movement

1. Sankaracharya

• • Adi Shankaracharya was a renowned philosopher and key figure in the 9th-century Hindu revival, who reshaped and reoriented Hinduism.
  • He was born in Kaladi, Kerala.
  • He formulated the doctrine of Advaita Vedanta (non-dualism) and promoted the idea of Nirgunabrahman—the concept of a formless, attribute-less ultimate reality.
  • According to Advaita philosophy, only Brahman is real, while the world is an illusion (Maya).
  • A well-known analogy he used is that of a rope mistaken for a snake in the dark — just as the illusion disappears upon realisation, so too does the illusion of the world vanish when one realises Brahman.
  • His famous saying, “Brahma Satyam Jagat Mithya, Jivo Brahmatra Naparaha,” translates to “Brahman alone is real, the world is illusory, and the soul is not different from Brahman.”
  • He emphasised that true knowledge (gyaan) is the only path to liberation (moksha).
  • Shankaracharya wrote commentaries on foundational Hindu texts like the Bhagavad Gita, Brahmasutras, and the Upanishads.
  • His notable literary works include

• Upadesh Shasri

• Vivek Chudamani

• Bhaja Govindam Stotra

• He established four major mathas (monastic centres) in Sringeri, Dwarka, Puri, and Badrinath, which became important centres of Advaita teaching.

2. Ramanujan/Ramanuja

• Ramanuja was born in the 12th century at Sriperumbudur, near present-day Chennai.
•  He rejected Shankaracharya’s concept of Mayavada and introduced the doctrine of Vishista Advaita or Qualified Monism, laying the foundation of the Shrivaishnava sect.
• Main Teachings:
  • God is viewed as Saguna Brahman—with form and attributes.
  • Unlike Shankara, Ramanuja held that the universe, soul, and God are all real.
  • God is the essential substance, while souls and matter are his attributes.
  • Though the world and Brahman are distinct in appearance, they are inseparably linked, as the world is an expression of Brahman.
• Philosophical Analogies:
  • The relationship between Brahman and the world is like that of the sea and waves—distinct in form but essentially the same.
  • Other analogies include gold and ornaments, clay and pots, spider and web.
• Concept of God:
  • Ramanuja identified Brahman with Vishnu, a personal deity endowed with omniscience, omnipotence, and compassion.
  • Vishnu creates and governs the world out of love for humanity.
  • Humans should offer devotion and worship to Vishnu to attain liberation (moksha).
• Religious Path:
  • Promoted prapattimarga—the path of complete surrender to God.
  • Emphasised bhakti (devotion) as the means to salvation.
  • Actively included the lower castes in the Vaishnava fold.
• Notable Works:
  • Sribhashya
  • Vedanta Dipa
  • Gita Bhasya
  • Vedantasara

3. Madhavacharya

• In the 13th century, Madhava from the Kannada region founded the Dvaita (dualism) philosophy.
• Dvaita emphasises the absolute distinction between Jivatma (individual soul) and Paramatma (Supreme God).
• It holds that the world is real, not an illusion.
• Brahman (Vishnu) and the world are two separate and equally real entities, with no inherent connection.
• Vishnu is the creator and controller of the world, which remains distinct and subordinate to Him.
• God, soul, and matter are each unique and irreducible; they cannot be merged or equated.
• The primary duty of all individuals is devotion and worship of Vishnu.
• Madhava also established the Brahma Sampradaya to spread his teachings.

4. Vallabhacharya

• Vallabhacharya was born in Benaras in the 15th century and spent time at the court of Krishnadeva Raya.
• He was the founder of the Shuddhadvaita (Pure Monism) philosophy.
• According to Shuddhadvaita, both Brahman and the world are real, but the world is not a transformation of Brahman.
• The world is seen as an inseparable and unchanging aspect of Brahman, similar to the two sides of a coin—distinct yet part of the same whole.
• Although it emphasises non-difference, it still accepts the reality of both Brahman and the world, thus aligning it with Vishishtadvaita, but with a stronger tilt towards pure monism.
• Vallabhacharya’s spiritual path is known as Pushtimarga (the path of grace).
• He established the Rudra Sampradaya.
• He regarded God as all-powerful, all-knowing, and the ultimate cause of the universe.
• Surdas, his blind disciple, played a major role in spreading the Krishna devotion movement in northern India.

5. Nimbraka

• He was a younger contemporary of Ramanuja and developed the philosophy of Dvaita Advaita and Bheda-Abheda (difference and non-difference).
• He believed that Brahman (the supreme soul) transforms into individual souls, making them real and distinct, yet inherently connected to Brahman.
• Similar to Vishista Advaita, his school held that both Brahman and the world are equally real but placed more emphasis on their distinction.
• He explained this relationship using familiar analogies such as:Sea and wave, clay and pot, and Especially sun and sunbeam—the sunbeam originates from and remains connected to the sun but is not the sun itself. Likewise, the world is a partial and limited expression of Brahman.
• He was a prominent Vaishnavite Bhakti preacher in the Telangana region.
• A devoted follower of Krishna and Radha, he set up his ashram in Braja (Mathura).
• He also founded the Sanak Sampradaya.

6. Vidyapati

Vidyapati, a 14th-century Maithili poet, was renowned for his devotional poetry dedicated to Lord Shiva, whom he affectionately referred to as Ugna.

The Bhakti Movement in Maharashtra

• • The Bhakti movement in Maharashtra revolved around the worship of Vithoba (Vitthal), the deity of Pandharpur, believed to be an incarnation of Krishna.
  • It is often referred to as the Pandharpur Movement due to its association with the Pandharpur shrine.
  • The movement contributed significantly to Maharashtra’s cultural and social transformation, including:
  • The rise of Marathi literature

• Enhanced status of women

• Reduction of caste-based discrimination

• It drew influence from the Bhagavata Purana and the Shaiva Nathpanthi tradition.
• The Bhakti movement in the region developed into two main branches:

1) Varakaris: Devotees of Vitthala known for their emotional, spiritual, and abstract devotion

2) Dharakaris: Followers of Ramadasa, devoted to Rama, with a more rational and practical outlook

• Despite their differences, both sects shared the ultimate goal of attaining union with God.
• Prominent saints associated with the Vithoba tradition include Jnaneswar (Jnanadeva), Namdeva, and Tukaram.

7. Jnaneswara or Jnanadeva

• A leading Bhakti saint of 13th-century Maharashtra.
• Composed the Jnanesvari, a commentary on the Bhagavad Gita.
• Jnanesvari became the foundation of Bhakti ideology in Maharashtra.
• Strongly opposed caste discrimination.
• Advocated Bhakti (devotion) as the only path to attain God.

8. Namdeva 

• Namdeva was a 14th-century poet-saint from Maharashtra and a prominent figure in the Varkari sect of the Vaishnava devotional tradition.
• He brought together people from various castes and social backgrounds through collective bhajan singing.
• While the northern Bhakti tradition regards him as a nirguna (formless God) saint, in Maharashtra, he is seen as part of the saguna (with form) Varkari movement.
• Namdeva is counted among the five key gurus of the Dadupanth tradition, alongside Dadu, Kabir, Ravidas, and Hardas.
• Tradition holds that Namdeva was initially a tailor who later turned to banditry, before transforming into a saint.
• His Marathi verses reflect deep devotion and intense love for God.
• His devotional circle included companions from different walks of life, such as:

Kanhopatra (dancer)

Sena (barber)

Savata (gardener)

Chokhamela (Dalit)

Janabai (maid)

Gora (potter)

Narahari (goldsmith)

Jnanesvar/Dnyandev (Brahmin)

• His Abhangas (devotional hymns) were later included in the Guru Granth Sahib, indicating his cross-regional spiritual influence.

9. Sant Eknath

• Eknath was a prominent 16th-century Marathi saint, scholar, and religious poet of the Varkari sampradaya.
• He acted as a literary bridge between earlier saints like Dnyaneshwar and Namdeva and later figures like Tukaram and Ramdas.
• He introduced a new form of Marathi devotional song known as Bharood.
• Eknath aimed to shift Marathi literature from purely spiritual themes to narrative compositions.
• He was a householder and emphasised that renunciation or monastic life is not essential to live a religious life.

10. Tukaram

• Tukaram was a 17th-century Bhakti poet-saint from Maharashtra, associated with the Varkari sect, which emphasised equality and devotion.
• He was born into the Shudra caste.
• He is renowned for his Abhangas—a form of devotional poetry—and for promoting community-based worship through kirtans (devotional singing).
• His spiritual compositions were dedicated to Vitthala/Vithoba, a form of Lord Vishnu.
• A contemporary of Shivaji, Tukaram played a significant role in shaping the spiritual and cultural environment that supported the rise of Maratha nationalism and the concept of ‘Parmaratha’ (spiritual purpose).

11. Ramdasa

• Born around 1608 CE.
• Served as the spiritual guide of Shivaji, the Maratha ruler.
• Authored the ‘Dasabodha’, a key text.
• The work blends knowledge from various sciences and arts with spiritual teachings.

Non-Sectarian Bhakti Movement

• During the 14th and 15th centuries, Ramananda, Kabir, and Nanak emerged as prominent leaders of the Bhakti movement.
• While inspired by earlier teachers, they introduced a new spiritual path.
• Unlike earlier reformers, they were not tied to any specific religious tradition and rejected rituals and ceremonies.
• They opposed polytheism and idolatry, advocating belief in one supreme God.
• Their teachings encouraged common people to abandon superstitions and seek salvation through pure devotion (bhakti).
• They strongly emphasised the essential unity of all religions.

12. Ramananda

• Ramananda lived in the first half of the 15th century and was born in Allahabad.
• Initially a disciple of Ramanuja, he later established his own sect and preached in Hindi, primarily in Benaras and Agra.
• He is regarded as a connecting link between South Indian Bhakti and North Indian Vaishnava traditions.
• Like Ramanuja in the South, Ramananda brought about a Bhakti revival in North India, challenging rigid rituals and promoting a devotional path centered on love.
• A key contribution was his rejection of caste discrimination—he welcomed followers from all social backgrounds.
• He focused his devotion on Ram and Sita, rather than Vishnu, and is credited with laying the foundation of the Ram cult in North India.
• Ramananda promoted Bhakti (devotion) as the primary path to salvation, rejecting both jnana (knowledge) and karma (ritual action) paths.
• His disciples are known as Ramanandis, with Tulsidas being a notable example.
• His teachings led to two streams of thought:
• Orthodox School – Represented by Nabhadas and Tulsidas
• Liberal School – Represented by Kabir, Nanak, and others
• He had several followers from diverse castes and professions:

Raidasa – Cobbler, whose hymns are included in the Guru Granth Sahib

Kabir – Weaver who preached the unity of God (Ram, Rahim, and Allah as one)

Sena – Barber

Sadhana – Butcher

Dhanna – Farmer

Naraharai – Goldsmith

Pipa – A Rajput prince

13. Kabir

• Kabir was a prominent 15th-century Bhakti poet-saint and a disciple of Ramananda.
• His verses are included in the Adi Granth, the sacred scripture of Sikhism.
• He was born near Benares to a Brahman widow but raised by a Muslim weaver couple.
• Kabir had an inquiring mind and studied both Hindu and Islamic traditions.
• He rejected idol worship and rituals, promoting equality of all people before God.
• Emphasised devotion (bhakti) as the true path to salvation, requiring a pure heart free from cruelty, dishonesty, and hypocrisy.
• Though aware of yogic practices, he dismissed asceticism and book knowledge as essential for spiritual realisation.
• He strongly opposed the caste system, especially the practice of untouchability.
• Aimed to bridge the gap between Hindus and Muslims, highlighting the unity of all religions.
• Famously stated: “Rama and Allah, temple and mosque” are the same.
• Considered one of India’s greatest mystic saints; his followers are known as Kabirpanthis.
• Influenced other saints like Raidas (a tanner from Benares), Guru Nanak (a Khatri from Punjab), and Dhanna (a Jat from Rajasthan).
• The Bijak is the most well-known compilation of his teachings and compositions.

14. Guru Nanak

• Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism and its first guru, was also a Nirguna Bhakti saint and a notable social reformer.
• He was born around 1469 CE in the village of Talwandi (present-day Nankana Sahib) near the Ravi River, into a Khatri family.
• His father worked as an accountant, and Nanak was trained in Persian to pursue a similar path, though he showed an early inclination towards mysticism.
• He rejected caste-based discrimination, religious divisions, and ritualistic practices prevalent in both Hinduism and Islam.
• Nanak strongly advocated for the oneness of God and denounced empty rituals and formalism.
• He emphasised the need for moral integrity and pure conduct as the foundation for attaining closeness to God.
• According to him, spiritual progress required the guidance of a true Guru.
• Like Kabir, he promoted a balanced approach to life, where one could lead a spiritual life while fulfilling household responsibilities.

15. Dadu Dayal 

• Dadu Dayal was a key figure in the Nirguna Bhakti tradition of Northern India.
• Originally from Gujarat, he spent most of his spiritual journey in Rajasthan.
• The name Dadu means “brother,” while Dayal signifies “compassionate.”
• His disciples, known as Dadupanthis, established spiritual centres called Thambas in the region.
• As per legend, he was adopted by a wealthy merchant after being discovered floating in the Sabarmati River.
• It is believed that Emperor Akbar was among his admirers.
• He emphasised devotion beyond religious and sectarian identities, advocating a non-sectarian (nipakh) path to God.

Vaishnavite Movement

In North India, the Bhakti movement developed around the worship of Rama and Krishna, avatars of Vishnu. Tulsidas, a key figure of the Ram cult, composed the Ramacharitamanasa, portraying Rama as the ideal and supreme being. The Krishna cult saw contributions from Vallabacharya and later saints like Surdas, who authored the Sursagar in Brajbhasha, and Mirabai, known for her devotional bhajans. The Radha Ballabhi sect was founded by Hari Vamsa in 1585 CE. Over time, both cults evolved into various Vaishnava sects. In Bengal, the movement took a different form, influenced by the Bhagavata Purana, Sahajiya Buddhism, and Nathpanthi traditions, emphasizing mystical and emotional devotion. Jayadeva and Chaitanya Mahaprabhu were key figures in this tradition.

16. Chaitanya Mahaprabhu

• Chaitanya Mahaprabhu was a prominent 16th-century saint, ascetic, and social reformer from Bengal.
• He was instrumental in popularising the Krishna Bhakti cult in Bengal.
• Initiated the Bhakti Movement in Bengal and transformed it into a social reform movement.
• Opposed caste-based discrimination and questioned rigid social hierarchies.
• Promoted Sankirtan/Kirtan—devotional singing and ecstatic dancing—as a path to experience the divine.
• Renounced worldly life, became an ascetic, and travelled widely, preaching devotion.
• Emphasised universal brotherhood, love, and peace, while rejecting religious and caste distinctions.
• Showed compassion for the poor and the weak, advocating devotion through love, song, and dance.
• Welcomed followers from all castes and communities, promoting inclusivity.
• His teachings continue to influence Bengal’s spiritual landscape.
• His biography was written by Krishnadas Kaviraj

17. Saint Tyagaraja

• Renowned as one of the greatest figures in Carnatic music.
• Created a vast number of devotional compositions.
• Primarily written in Telugu, focusing on the worship of Lord Rama.
• Best known for the celebrated Pancharatna Kritis (Five Gems).
• Made a significant impact on the evolution of classical devotional music.

18. Narsingh Mehta

• A revered saint from Gujarat known for composing devotional songs in the Gujarati language.
• His songs often focused on the divine love of Radha and Krishna.
• He is the composer of the famous bhajan “Vaishnava Jan To”, which was a favourite of Mahatma Gandhi.

SUFISM

• The word ‘Sufi’ originates from the Arabic word ‘suf’, meaning wool, symbolizing the simple woollen robes worn by early Muslim ascetics.
• It also implies ‘purity’, reflecting their emphasis on inner spiritual cleanliness.
• Sufis were known for maintaining pure hearts and striving to connect with God through ascetic practices.
• Terms such as Sufi, Wali, Darvesh, and Faqir are often used to describe Muslim mystics who pursued spiritual insight through renunciation, meditation, and self-discipline.
• Sufism focuses on the deep love between the individual and God, considering this love essential to spiritual growth.
• Important concepts in Sufism include:
  Ruh – the soul

Qurbat – closeness to God

Hulul – union or infusion with the divine spirit

Ishq – divine love

Fana – self-annihilation or dissolving the ego in God

• Sufism represents the inner, mystical aspect of Islam, focusing on direct personal experience of the divine.
• Sufi saints promoted universal love and human welfare, transcending religious and social boundaries.
• They viewed God as the beloved (Mashuq) and themselves as devoted lovers (Ashiqs), dedicating their lives to divine contemplation.

Core Beliefs and Values:

• Sufism emphasised love and devotion as key paths to experiencing God.
• True love for God was expressed through love and service to humanity, equating the two.
• It valued self-discipline as essential for spiritual insight and knowledge of God through perception.
• Unlike orthodox Islam which stressed outward behavior, Sufism focused on inner spiritual purity.

Essential Practices:

• Practiced meditation, righteous deeds, repentance, prayers, pilgrimage, fasting, and charity.
• Advocated for asceticism to control desires and purify the soul.

Origins and Growth:

• Emerged in the 8th century as an Islamic mystical movement.
• Notable early Sufis include Rabia al-Adawiya, Al-Junaid, and Bayazid Bastami.
• It became a structured movement by the end of the 11th century.

Sufism in the Indian Subcontinent:

• Al Hujwiri, among the earliest Sufis in India, was buried in Lahore and is revered as a pioneering figure.
• By the 12th century, Sufis began organizing into spiritual lineages called Silsilahs.

Major Sufi Orders (Silsilahs):

1. Chishti
2. Suhrawardi
3. Qadiri
4. Naqshbandi

Sufi Institutions and Teachings:

• The khanqah (Sufi hospice) served as the center for spiritual training, learning, and religious gatherings.
• Led by a pir, shaikh, or murshid, and included his disciples (murids).
• After a pir’s death, his dargah (tomb/shrine) became a place of worship and pilgrimage.

Spiritual Journey and Rituals:

• Disciples progressed through various maqamat (spiritual stages) toward union with the divine.
• Sama (spiritual music sessions) and qawwali became prominent in Sufi practice.
• Ziyarat, or visiting the tombs of saints, became a common form of religious devotion.
• Many Sufis were believed to have performed miracles, which increased their spiritual authority.

The Chisti Silsilah

a. Foundation and Establishment

• The Chishti Order was introduced to India by Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti, who likely arrived after Muhammad Ghori’s invasion and settled in Ajmer around 1206 CE.
• He believed that true devotion to God was shown by helping those in distress, supporting the helpless, and feeding the poor.
• His popularity increased after his death in 1235 CE, especially when Sultan Muhammad Tughlaq visited his shrine.
• Later, Mahmud Khalji of Malwa built the mosque and dome over his grave in the 15th century.
• The shrine received even greater recognition and support under Mughal Emperor Akbar.

b. Chishti Order in Delhi

• Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki, originally from Transoxiana, brought the Chishti tradition to Delhi in 1221 CE.
• He faced opposition from the Suhrawardi Sufis, who tried to expel him, but Sultan Iltutmish backed him, leading to their failure.
• The Qutub Minar is named in his honor.

c. Key Teachings of the Chishti Order

• Advocated for a simple and humble lifestyle, emphasising renunciation of material wealth to achieve spiritual purity.
• Stressed the importance of divine love as the link between the soul and God, along with compassion for all beings.
• Practiced religious tolerance, accepting disciples regardless of their faith.
• Spoke in plain language for wider understanding and rejected royal patronage for their sustenance.

d. Prominent Chishti Saints

• Baba Fariduddin Ganj-i-Shakar established his base at Hansi in Haryana, an important route between Multan and Lahore.
• Nizamuddin Auliya (14th century) remained distant from court politics, refusing to associate with ruling factions like those of Mubarak Khalji and Ghiyasauddin Tughlaq, which led to tensions but gained him immense popular respect.
• His disciple, Nasiruddin Chiragh-i-Dehlavi, was more politically active and engaged with state matters.

e. Chishti Order in the Deccan

• The order expanded into the Deccan in the 13th century through Shaikh Burhanuddin Gharib.
• Between the 14th and 16th centuries, several Chishti saints moved to Gulbarga, and over time, some began accepting royal patronage, marking a shift from earlier ideals.
• Bijapur became a major hub of Chishti activity, with Muhammad Banda Nawaz emerging as a notable saint of the region.

The Suhrawardi Silsilah

• The Suhrawardi Silsilah was founded by Shihabuddin Suhrawardi in Baghdad and later introduced in India by Bahauddin Zakariya.
• The Suhrawardis operated mainly in Punjab and Sindh, unlike the Chishtis, who were more active in Delhi, Rajasthan, and the Gangetic plains.
• They were open to accepting financial support from the Sultans and maintained close ties with the Muslim nobility.
• They engaged in politics and did not withdraw from worldly affairs.
• The Suhrawardis believed that a true Sufi should possess property, knowledge, and mystical enlightenment (hal) to serve the needy effectively.
• They opposed extreme asceticism and self-denial.
• They placed importance on the external observance of religious duties.
• The order emphasised a balance between religious scholarship (ilm) and spiritual mysticism.

The Naqshbandi Silsilah

• The Naqshbandi order was introduced in India by Khwaja Bahauddin Naqshbandi and later promoted by his followers Sheikh Baqi Billah and Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi.
• The order placed strong emphasis on strict adherence to Islamic law (shariat) and rejected any form of religious innovation (biddat).
• Its followers aimed to eliminate liberal and un-Islamic practices from Islam, advocating for a more orthodox interpretation.
• They opposed religious music (sama) and the practice of visiting saints’ tombs, distancing themselves from the customs of other Sufi orders.
• The Naqshbandis were firmly against interaction with Hindus and Shias, promoting exclusivist religious views.
• They criticised Emperor Akbar’s liberal religious policies, particularly:

1. 1. Giving prominent roles to non-Muslims
   2. Abolishing the jizya tax

• Banning cow slaughter

• The order held that the bond between a human and God was one of servant and master, differing from the Chishti view, which saw it as a relationship of love

The Qadri Silsilah

• The Qadiriyya Silsilah became popular in Punjab during the Mughal period.
• It was founded by Sheikh Abdul Qadir and carried forward by his sons:
  • Shaikh Niamtullah
  • Mukhdum Muhammad Jilani
  • Miyan Mir
• Miyan Mir accepted Princess Jahanara and Prince Dara Shikoh as disciples.
• Shah Badakhshani was another notable saint of this order.

• Supported the doctrine of Wahdat al-Wajud (“Unity of Existence”):
  • Belief that God and His creation are essentially one.
• Rejected orthodox Islamic views:
  • A non-believer who understands divine reality is a true believer.
  • A believer who fails to perceive this reality is actually an infidel.

• Medieval Islam witnessed a conflict between liberal and orthodox views:
  • Chisti Sufis: Liberal; supported assimilation with local culture.
  • Naqshbandi Sufis: Orthodox; emphasised strict adherence to shariat and purity of Islam.
• The majority of Sufis supported the liberal interpretation, opposing the rigid legalism promoted by the ulema.

Impact of Sufism

Sufism, with its liberal and unorthodox features, had a profound impact on medieval Bhakti saints, shaping their emphasis on love and selfless devotion. These ideals also resonated with Emperor Akbar, influencing his religious outlook and policies. As the Sufi movement gained ground among Muslims, the Bhakti cult flourished among Hindus, both fostering spiritual unity and bridging communal divides. Sufism spread across both rural and urban areas, leaving a deep social, political, and cultural imprint. It challenged religious orthodoxy, rigid formalism, and hypocrisy, advocating a life devoted to spiritual bliss and inner harmony. In an age consumed by political conflict, Sufi saints offered moral guidance and worked toward peace and reconciliation. Their greatest contribution was the softening of Hindu-Muslim prejudices, nurturing a sense of solidarity and shared devotion. Even today, Sufi saints are venerated by followers of both faiths, and their shrines remain important pilgrimage sites symbolising communal harmony.

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