Jainism & Buddhism

Understand Jainism and Buddhism, including their origins, doctrines, councils, and the decline, with comprehensive UPSC-focused notes on philosophy, literature, and relevance.

Introduction 

Jainism and Buddhism is important for UPSC as it covers a major socio-religious transformation in ancient India. These religions challenged Brahmanical dominance and promoted equality, non-violence, and rationalism. UPSC frequently asks questions on their origin, teachings, councils, and decline in both Prelims and Mains (GS I and Essay). Their influence on Indian art, literature, and ethics, along with their continued relevance in Indian philosophy and society, makes them essential for a well-rounded historical understanding.

This blog explores the rise and evolution of Jainism and Buddhism as responses to the social inequalities and ritualism of post-Vedic India. Both religions, founded in the 6th century BCE, challenged Brahmanical dominance and promoted ethical living, non-violence, and spiritual liberation. The document provides a clear, comparative overview of their origins, teachings, literature, sects, and cultural impact—serving as a compact guide for understanding their role in shaping Indian history and thought.

The Causes of Origin

Post-Vedic society was divided into four varnas—Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras—each with fixed roles. Though based on birth, the Brahmanas and Kshatriyas held most power and privileges. Brahmanas, the highest varna, served as priests and teachers and enjoyed exemptions from taxes and punishment. Kshatriyas ruled and lived off peasant taxes. Vaishyas, engaged in trade and agriculture, were principal taxpayers, while Shudras, excluded from Vedic education, worked as laborers and were often treated as untouchables.

Tensions arose, especially among Kshatriyas, who resented Brahmanical dominance, contributing to the emergence of Jainism and Buddhism. Both Mahavira and Buddha, Kshatriyas themselves, challenged the varna system and priestly authority.

The real push for new ideologies came from the rise of agriculture in eastern India, enabled by iron tools. However, the Vedic tradition of cattle sacrifice hindered animal husbandry essential to this economy. The shift to settled agriculture and urbanisation (e.g., Pataliputra, Varanasi, Vaishali) fostered trade, leading to the use of punch-marked coins and a rise in the economic power of Vaishyas, who supported these new religions for better social standing.

Jainism and Buddhism appealed due to their rejection of varna, non-violence, and ascetic ideals—a reaction to growing inequality and materialism caused by the new agrarian-urban economy. Much like critiques of the Industrial Revolution, people longed for a simpler, pre-Iron Age life, reflected in the teachings of these religions.

Vardhamana Mahavira and Jainism

• Mahavira, considered the 24th and last tirthankara, was preceded by 23 others.
• If this tradition is accepted, Jainism’s origin goes back to the 9th century BCE.
• Some Jainas believe Rishabhadeva was the first tirthankara, associated with Ayodhya, which became significantly settled only by 500 BCE.
• Most of the early tirthankaras (up to the 15th) are believed to have been born in eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, but their historical authenticity is doubtful.
• Since the mid-Gangetic plains saw major settlement only after the 5th century BCE, the stories of early tirthankaras likely aimed to provide greater antiquity to Jainism.

• The earliest Jain teachings are credited to Parshvanatha, the 23rd tirthankara, who came from Banaras, renounced royal life, and became an ascetic.
• However, Mahavira is considered the true founder of Jainism.

• Born in 540 BCE near Vaishali (modern Basarh, Bihar).
• His father Siddhartha was a Kshatriya chief, and his mother Trishala was the sister of Lichchhavi chief Chetaka, linking Mahavira to the royal family of Magadha.
• These royal ties helped him in gaining the support of rulers and nobles during his spiritual mission.

• Mahavira gave up worldly life at the age of 30 to become an ascetic.
• For 12 years, he wandered, practicing extreme austerities—staying only a day in villages and up to five days in towns.
• At 42, he attained omniscience (Kaivalya) and renounced clothing.
• Known thereafter as Mahavira (great hero) or Jina (conqueror), his followers became known as Jainas.

• He preached for 30 years, travelling across Koshala, Magadha, Mithila, Champa, and nearby regions.
• Mahavira passed away at 72 in 468 BCE at Pavapuri, near modern-day Rajgir.
• Another tradition places his death in 527 BCE, but archaeological evidence suggests that settlements linked to him didn’t exist before 500 BCE.

Doctrines of Jainism

Five main doctrines

1. Ahimsa (non-violence)
2. Satya (truthfulness)
3. Asteya (non-stealing)
4. Aparigraha (non-possessiveness)
5. Brahmacharya (celibacy)—added by Mahavira

Ahimsa was given the highest importance, sometimes resulting in extreme measures (e.g., execution for killing animals).

Role of Mahavira

• Adopted four doctrines from earlier teachers, added brahmacharya.
• Advocated a more austere life than his predecessor Parshva by asking followers to discard clothing.
• This led to the split into two sects:
  • Shvetambaras – wore white clothes
  • Digambaras – remained naked

Philosophical Beliefs

• Recognised gods, but ranked them below the Jina.
• Did not reject the varna system like Buddhism.
• Mahavira believed varna is determined by one’s karma (deeds in past life).
• Emphasised human values, even in lower castes (e.g., chandalas) – liberation possible through pure and meritorious life.

Ultimate Goal

• Aim: Liberation from worldly bonds
• No rituals required
• Achieved through the Triratna (Three Jewels):
  1. Right Knowledge
  2. Right Faith
  3. Right Action

Socio-economic Impact

• Jainism prohibited war and agriculture (both involved killing life).
• As a result, Jainas mostly turned to trade and commerce.

Jain Councils

Jain Literature

Language: Ardhamagadhi Prakrit (Svetambara canon)

Main Texts:

1. 12 Angas
2. 12 Upangas
3. 10 Parikarmas
4. 6 Chedasutras
5. 4 Mulasutras
6. 2 Sutra Granthas

Note: 14 Purvas (Parvas)—Considered the oldest part of Mahavira’s teachings; included in the original 12 Angas.

Other Important Jain Texts:

1. Kalpasutra—By Bhadrabahu (in Sanskrit)
2. Bhadrabahu Charita
3. Parishishta Parvan—By Hemchandra (appendix to Trishashthishalaka Purush)

Sects of Jainism

Background: Due to a famine in Magadha (298 BC), many Jain monks migrated to South India (Shravanabelgola) with Bhadrabahu and Chandragupta Maurya. In return, a difference arose regarding nudity, leading to the formation of two sects.

Jain Architecture

Royal Patrons of Jainism

North India:

• Nandas
• Haryanka Dynasty: Bimbisara, Ajatashatru, Udayin
• Mauryas: Chandragupta Maurya, Bindusara, Samprati
• Pradyota (Avanti)
• Udayan (Sindhu-Sauvira)

South India:

• Ganga Dynasty
• Kadamba Dynasty
• Rashtrakutas: Amoghavarsha
• Chaulukyas (Solankis): Siddharaj Jai Singh, Kumarpala (last great patrons)
• Kharavela (Kalinga)

Spread of Jainism

• Mahavira formed a religious order that accepted both men and women to spread Jain teachings.
• He delivered his sermons in Prakrit, the language of the common people.
• His followers numbered around 14,000, which was relatively modest.

• Jainism did not clearly distinguish itself from the Brahmanical faith, limiting its appeal among the masses.
• However, it gradually expanded in south and west India, where Brahmanical influence was weaker.

• According to later tradition, Chandragupta Maurya embraced Jainism, renounced his throne, and lived as an ascetic in Karnataka—though this is not supported by independent sources.
• A 12-year famine in Magadha, two centuries after Mahavira’s death, prompted a migration of Jainas to the south under Bhadrabahu, while others remained in Magadha under Sthalabahu.
• Upon their return, disputes arose between the two groups over religious practices during the famine.

• To address the differences, a council was convened at Pataliputra, which was boycotted by the southern group.
• This led to the division into two sects:
  • Digambaras (southern group)
  • Shvetambaras (Magadha group)
• Though the famine narrative is debated, the division into two sects is historically accepted.

• In Karnataka, inscriptions related to Jainism appear only from the 3rd century AD.
• From the 5th century onwards, numerous Jaina monasteries (basadis) were built, often supported by royal grants.

• Jainism reached Kalinga (Odisha) in the 4th century BC and flourished under King Kharavela in the 1st century BC.
• It also spread to southern Tamil Nadu in the 2nd–1st centuries BC.
• Over time, Jainism expanded to Malwa, Gujarat, and Rajasthan, where many followers still engage in trade and commerce.

• Despite limited royal patronage and slow growth, Jainism maintained a lasting presence in the regions it reached.
• In contrast, Buddhism eventually declined and disappeared from much of the Indian subcontinent.

Contribution of Jainism

• Jainism was among the earliest movements to oppose the varna hierarchy and ritualistic practices of the Vedic religion.

• Jainas abandoned Sanskrit, the language of the Brahmanas, and adopted Prakrit, the language of the masses, to spread their teachings.
• Their scriptures were composed in Ardhamagadhi, and later compiled in the 6th century AD at Valabhi (in Gujarat), an important educational centre.
• The use of Prakrit by Jainas greatly encouraged the development of regional languages, such as:
  • Shauraseni, which evolved into Marathi.
  • Apabhramsha, in which they created major works and the first grammar.
• Jaina literary contributions include epics, Puranas, novels, and plays.
• Many Jaina texts remain unpublished and are preserved in manuscript form in Jain temples of Gujarat and Rajasthan.
• From the early medieval period, Jainas also wrote extensively in Sanskrit and made notable contributions to Kannada literature.

• Like early Buddhists, Jainas were initially against image worship.
• Over time, they began worshipping Mahavira and the 23 tirthankaras, leading to the creation of large and beautiful stone sculptures, especially in Karnataka, Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Madhya Pradesh.
• Although early Jaina art was less elaborate than that of the Buddhists, Jainism played a significant role in enriching medieval Indian art and architecture.

Gautama Buddha and Buddhism

• Gautama Buddha, also known as Siddhartha, was a contemporary of Mahavira.
• He was born in 567 BC in Lumbini (now in Nepal), near Kapilavastu—identified with present-day Piprahwa in Basti district.
• He belonged to a Shakya Kshatriya family; his father was the elected ruler of Kapilavastu and head of the Shakya republican clan.
• His mother was a princess from the Koshalan dynasty.
• Like Mahavira, he came from a noble background and was influenced by republican (egalitarian) ideals.

• Gautama had a meditative and reflective nature since childhood.
• Though married early, he was disinterested in worldly life.
• Deeply affected by human suffering, he left home at age 29 in search of truth and a solution to suffering.

• After seven years of wandering, he attained enlightenment at age 35 under a pipal tree at Bodh Gaya.
• From that point, he was known as Buddha (the Enlightened One).

• Delivered his first sermon at Sarnath near Varanasi.
• Travelled extensively for 40 years, preaching and meditating, except during the rainy season.
• He was physically strong and could walk 20–30 km daily.
• Engaged in debates with followers of rival sects, including Brahmanas, and often emerged victorious.
• His message was inclusive, addressing people regardless of caste, class, or gender.

• He passed away at the age of 80 in 487 BC at Kusinagara (identified with present-day Kasia in Deoria district, eastern Uttar Pradesh).
• Like Mahavira, there is limited archaeological evidence confirming his existence in the 6th century BC.
• Cities associated with his life—Kaushambi, Shravasti, Varanasi, Vaishali, and Rajgriha—only became urban centres by the 5th century BC.

Doctrines of Buddhism

Practical Reformer

• Buddha focused on practical solutions to worldly problems, not abstract metaphysical debates.
• He avoided controversies about the soul (atman) and Brahma.

Core Philosophy

• The world is full of sorrow (dukkha).
• Desire (tanha) is the root cause of suffering.
• Nirvana (liberation) is attained by conquering desires.
• Nirvana leads to freedom from the cycle of birth and death (samsara).

Eightfold Path (Ashtangika Marga)

Attributed to Buddha around the 3rd century BCE, the path includes:

• Right Observation (View)
• Right Determination (Intention)
• Right Speech
• Right Action
• Right Livelihood
• Right Effort
• Right Awareness (Mindfulness)
• Right Concern (Concentration)
  

Following this path frees one from priestly control and leads to liberation.

Middle Path

• Advocated moderation: Avoided both luxury and extreme austerity.

Code of Conduct

Similar to Jaina ethics, it includes:

• (i) Ahimsa – Do not commit violence
• (ii) Do not covet others’ property
• (iii) Avoid intoxicants
• (iv) Do not lie
• (v) Avoid sexual misconduct/adultery

Universal Ethics

• These moral rules are common across many religions.

Buddhist Literature

I. Pali Texts

• Tripitaka (“Three Baskets”)—Named so because original texts were written on palm leaves and kept in baskets.
  • Sutta Pitaka – Sayings of Buddha
  • Vinaya Pitaka – Monastic code
  • Abhidhamma Pitaka – Philosophical and psychological analysis
    • Contains: Digha Nikaya, Majjhima Nikaya, Samyutta Nikaya, Anguttara Nikaya, Khuddaka Nikaya (Kshudraka)
• Milindapanho – Dialogue between Indo-Greek king Milinda (Menander) and monk Nagasena
• Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa – Chronicles of Sri Lanka

II. Sanskrit Texts

• Ashvaghosha: Buddhacharita, Saundarananda, Sutralankar, Sariputra Prakaran, Vajra Suchi
• Vasumitra: Mahavibhasha Shastra
• Buddhaghosa: Visuddhimagga, Atthakatha, Sumangalavilasini
• Nagarjuna: Madhyamika Karika, Prajnaparamita Karika

Sects of Buddhism

1. Hinayana/Theravada Buddhism (Lesser Vehicle)

• Based on original teachings of Buddha.
• Emphasised self-discipline and individual salvation through meditation.
• No idol worship.
• Used Pali language.
• Known as Southern Buddhism (Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Java).
• Sub-sects: Vaibhasika, Sautantrika

2. Mahayana (Greater Vehicle)

• Believed in the divinity and heavenliness of Buddha.
• Emphasised universal salvation via grace of Buddha and bodhisattvas.
• Practiced idol worship.
• Used Sanskrit language.
• Known as Northern Buddhism (China, Korea, Japan).
• Sub-sects:
  • Madhyamika / Shunyavada – Founder: Nagarjuna
  • Yogachara / Vijnanavada – Founder: Maitreyanath; Disciple: Asanga

3. Vajrayana (Tantric Buddhism)

• Believed in salvation through magical power (Vajra).
• Chief deities: Taras
• Popular in Eastern India, especially Bengal and Bihar

Bodhisattvas and Their Attributes

Sacred Shrines of Buddhism

Four Principal Sites (linked to major events in Buddha’s life)

Additional Four Sacred Places (making up Ashtasthanas – Eight Holy Places)

Other Prominent Buddhist Centres in Ancient India

Forms of Buddhist Architecture

1. Stupa – A structure housing relics of Buddha or prominent monks.
2. Chaitya – A prayer hall, often with a stupa at one end.
3. Vihara – A monastic residence, often consisting of cells and communal areas for monks.
   
   

Features & Spread of Buddhism 

Core Beliefs and Social Impact

• Buddhism denied the existence of a god and soul, marking a major shift in Indian religious thought.
• It rejected the caste system, which attracted the lower social classes and marginalised groups.
• Women were allowed to join the sangha, promoting a degree of gender equality.
• Compared to Brahmanism, Buddhism was more liberal, inclusive, and democratic.

Regional Appeal and Social Context

• Buddhism gained popularity in non-Vedic regions where it encountered little resistance.
• The people of Magadha embraced it quickly, as orthodox Brahmanas had excluded them.
• Magadha was outside Aryavarta (holy land of the Aryas), and this cultural divide persisted, as seen in north Bihar’s cremation customs.

Buddha’s Character and Teaching Style

• The Buddha’s calm, compassionate, and rational approach made a deep impression.
• He responded to hate with kindness, and used wit and wisdom to counter criticism.
• His teachings focused on practical problems, not abstract philosophy.

Language and Communication

• The use of Pali, a simple local dialect, helped make Buddhist teachings easily understood by the masses.
• Buddhism’s plain and relatable style distinguished it from other complex religious traditions.

Formation and Role of Sangha

• Buddha created the sangha (monastic community), open to all people regardless of caste or gender.
• However, slaves, soldiers, and debtors were not allowed to join.
• Monks followed strict rules, including vows of celibacy, poverty, and faith.
• The sangha played a key role in spreading Buddhism effectively during Buddha’s lifetime.

Royal Patronage and Global Spread

• Kingdoms like Magadha, Koshala, and Kaushambi, as well as many republics, adopted Buddhism.
• Ashoka’s conversion (200 years after Buddha’s death) was a landmark event.
• Ashoka sent missionaries to spread Buddhism in Central Asia, West Asia, and Sri Lanka, making it a global religion.

Enduring Influence

• Although Buddhism declined in India, it remained strong in South, Southeast, and East Asia.
• Today, it is still practiced in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Tibet, China, and Japan

Causes of the Decline of Buddhism

Internal Factors:

• Loss of Reformist Spirit: Buddhism, like many religions, began as a reformist movement but later became ritualistic and ceremonial.
• Adoption of Sanskrit: Buddhist monks abandoned Pali (the people’s language) for Sanskrit, isolating themselves from the masses.
• Idol Worship and Wealth Accumulation: From the 1st century CE, idol worship increased; large offerings and royal grants led to materialism in monasteries.
• Corruption in Monasteries: Monasteries like Nalanda became wealthy, collecting taxes from many villages; monks grew indulgent and corrupt.
• Rise of Vajrayana Buddhism: This later form encouraged rituals, wealth accumulation, and even increasing sexual activity, degrading original ideals.
• Attitude Towards Women: Women were seen as temptations; Buddha’s own prediction suggested admitting women shortened the life of Buddhism.

External Factors:

• Brahmanical Reform: To counter Buddhism, Brahmanas reformed Hinduism—preserving cattle wealth and promising heaven to women and Shudras.
• Persecution by Rulers:
  • Pushyamitra Shunga allegedly persecuted Buddhists.
  • Mihirakula (a Huna ruler) and Shashanka (Shaivite ruler of Gauda) committed atrocities like killing monks and destroying monasteries.
  • Hsuan Tsang mentions the destruction of 1600 monasteries and the killing of thousands.
• Religious Conflicts: Shaivites and Vaishnavites in South India opposed both Buddhists and Jainas, leading to decline.
• Turkish Invasions: Turkish invaders targeted wealthy monasteries in Bihar, killing monks and destroying institutions. Some monks fled to Nepal and Tibet.

• By the 12th Century: Buddhism became virtually extinct in India, the land of its origin.

Significance and Influence of Buddhism

1. Socio-Economic Context & Teachings

• Buddhism responded to growing wealth inequality in 5th century BCE north-east India due to plough-based agriculture, trade, and use of coins.
• It advised against accumulation of wealth, stating poverty leads to hatred, cruelty, and violence.
• Buddha’s economic vision: Provide grain to farmers, wealth to traders, and employment to the jobless.
• Alms-giving was linked to karmic rewards: the poor giving alms could be reborn wealthy.

2. Code for Monks

• Early monastic code reflected a reaction against materialism: restrictions on food, clothes, sexuality, gold, and silver.
• Early rules indicate primitive communism and revolt against private property and trade.
• Over time, these rules relaxed, but initially opposed the prevailing economic structure.

3. Buddhism’s Contradictions

• Despite aiming to alleviate inequality, rules like banning debtors and slaves from the sangha favoured the rich and slaveowners.
• Monks, like Brahmanas, lived on alms, didn’t participate in production, and supported private property, political authority, and class order.
• The Varna concept in Buddhism was based on actions and qualities, not birth.

4. Salvation and Social Adjustment

• Nirvana (salvation) was the goal, but only for monks.
• Lay followers were urged to accept existing social conditions, not reject them.
• Buddhism offered escape from inequality mainly to those who renounced worldly life.

5. Social Impact

• Opened its doors to women and Shudras, freeing them from Brahmanical discrimination (e.g., denial of Vedic learning).
• Did not devalue manual labour – Buddha is shown ploughing in Bodh Gaya sculpture.
• Helped promote non-violence and animal protection, boosting cattle wealth.
  • Suttanipata describes cattle as sources of food, strength, and happiness.

6. Cultural & Intellectual Influence

• Promoted rational thinking over superstition; urged people to use logic and reasoning.
• Enriched Pali literature:
  • Buddha’s teachings (Sutta),
  • Monastic rules (Vinaya),
  • Philosophical doctrines (Abhidhamma).
• Developed Hybrid Sanskrit by blending Pali and Sanskrit in early Christian era.
• Composed important Apabhramsa texts in medieval eastern India.
• Monasteries (e.g., Nalanda, Vikramashila, Valabhi) evolved as residential universities.

7. Artistic Contributions

• First human statues in India were probably of Buddha.
• Artistic depictions of Buddha’s life seen in Bodh Gaya, Sanchi, Bharhut.
• Gandhara Art blended Indian and Greek styles – flourished in north-west India.
• Initiated rock-cut cave architecture (e.g., Barabar Hills, Nasik).
• Buddhist art thrived in Krishna delta (south) and Mathura (north).

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The Source’s Authority and Ownership of the Article is Claimed By THE STUDY IAS BY MANIKANT SINGH