The Study IAS

Month: June 2025

  • Reforming India’s Civil Services Exam

    Reforming India’s Civil Services Exam

    Does the civil services examination need reform?

    Context: The Civil Services Examination (CSE), conducted by the Union Public Service Commission (UPSC), is one of the most prestigious and competitive exams in India. 

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    • Its current format, however, is due for a serious re-evaluation. 
    • While the exam has evolved since its colonial origins—starting with the Macaulay Report of 1854 and later shaped by the Kothari Committee of 1975—new challenges have emerged in recent decades that demand a fresh perspective.

    Historical Background

    • Macaulay Report: The foundation of the present format of the civil services exam lies in the Macaulay Report, which first recommended selection by merit and emphasised the transferability of academic talent to administration. 
    • Kothari Committee: Post-Independence, the Kothari Committee (1975) introduced a structured, three-stage process: Preliminary Exam, Main Exam, and Interview, which continues to this day.

    Early Format: A Black Box of Secrecy

    • Preliminary Stage: Originally, the preliminary stage included one optional subject and a general studies paper, with a 2:1 weightage. 
      • Only the names of shortlisted candidates were published, while details like scores and cut-off marks were kept confidential. 
      • This “black box approach” functioned without much friction—until the enactment of the Right to Information Act (RTI) in 2005.
    • RTI Act: The RTI Act opened the floodgates, with aspirants demanding transparency. 
    • S.K. Khanna Committee: Consequently, the government formed the S.K. Khanna Committee (2010) to recommend reforms. Based on its suggestions, the 2011 format replaced optional subjects with two common papers:
      • Paper I: General Studies (History, Geography, Polity, etc.)
      • Paper II: Aptitude, reasoning, and English comprehension
    • Biasedness: However, Paper II was seen as biased in favour of urban and English-medium students, sparking widespread protests. 
      • In response, Paper II was made qualifying in nature, with its marks no longer contributing to merit— a system that remains in place today.

    Nigvekar Committee Reforms and the New Format

    • In 2012, the Arun Nigvekar Committee was constituted to further refine the exam. 
    • Its suggestions, implemented from 2013, restructured the General Studies papers in the Main exam to include diverse topics such as: Indian Polity and Governance, Economic Development, Science and Technology, International Relations.
      • Despite these improvements, key concerns persist.

    Challenges in the Current UPSC Exam Pattern

    • Prelims as a ‘Jealous Gatekeeper’: The preliminary exam is no longer a tool to select the best minds; it has become a filter to reduce five lakh candidates to around 10,000.
      • Paper II, despite being qualifying, continues to favour aspirants from Science and Engineering backgrounds.
      • Paper I has grown increasingly unpredictable, putting Humanities students and rural aspirants at a disadvantage.
      • The opportunity cost for sincere aspirants dedicating years to preparation is growing unsustainable.
    • Main Exam (Need for Analytical Depth): Currently, the General Studies papers consist of 20 short-answer questions. 
      • Feedback indicates that factual knowledge is rewarded more than critical thinking. 
      • The absence of long-form questions hinders the evaluation of an aspirant’s analytical and decision-making abilities—skills essential for administrative roles.
    • Optional Subjects (A Distortion in Fairness): Many candidates choose scoring optionals instead of subjects aligned with their academic background. 
      • This trend, though legal, compromises the exam’s credibility. 
      • A more equitable alternative would be to replace optional subjects with common papers in Public Administration, Governance, and Policy, which align better with a bureaucrat’s duties.
    • Inclusivity and Social Representation: The civil services must reflect India’s diverse socio-economic fabric. 
      • Hence, the upper age limit and number of attempts must be retained until 2030, ensuring continued access for marginalised communities. 
      • Beyond 2030, reforms can be introduced based on demographic and socio-economic data.

    A Call for Exam Reform

    The UPSC Civil Services Examination must evolve with the changing dynamics of Indian society and administration. It is imperative to:

    • Make the preliminary exam more balanced and predictable
      • Introduce long-form analytical questions in the Main examination
    • Phase out optional subjects in favour of relevant common papers
    • Retain age and attempt limits to ensure inclusivity until 2030

    As India strides toward becoming a developed nation by 2047, it needs a civil services examination structure that reflects the ideals of transparency, fairness, inclusivity, and meritocracy.

     

     

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  • South Asia’s India-Pakistan Balance

    South Asia’s India-Pakistan Balance

    South Asia’s India-Pakistan Balance: Geopolitical Shifts, Neutrality, and Regional Strategy

     

     

    Context: South Asia’s political landscape remains deeply influenced by the enduring rivalry between India and Pakistan. This dynamic has shaped the region’s diplomacy, strategic alignments, and developmental choices for decades. While India’s power continues to rise, smaller South Asian nations leverage neutrality and regional cooperation to maintain sovereignty and balance.

    Historical Origins: Partition and Power Struggles

    • The India-Pakistan conflict began with the 1947 Partition, triggering four major wars (1947, 1965, 1971, and 1999). 
    • These hostilities set the foundation for South Asia’s strategic dynamics, where most neighbouring nations—Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and the Maldives—opted for neutrality. 
      • Their stance was driven by a desire to avoid entanglement and maintain autonomy.

    Neutrality as a Regional Strategy

    • Countries viewed Pakistan’s revisionist ambitions as a means to check India’s dominant position. 
    • Afghanistan, meanwhile, resisted Pakistan’s influence by strategically siding with India—particularly over the Durand Line and Pashtun identity issues.

    Nationalism and Domestic Politics

    • India’s size and policy decisions often fueled anti-India sentiments in neighbouring countries, while Pakistan’s involvement in the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War polarised domestic politics across the region. 
    • Leaders leveraged neutrality to maintain internal stability and avoid foreign dependency.

    Contemporary Shifts: Declining Pakistan, Rising India

    • Since the 2000s, Pakistan’s regional clout has diminished, owing to economic stagnation and political instability. 
    • In contrast, India’s economy has surged, with intra-regional trade growing from US$3.6 billion in 2003 to over US$37 billion in 2022.

    Counter-Terrorism and Strategic Alignment

    • India’s post-Uri attack strategy involved isolating Pakistan diplomatically and targeting terror infrastructure. 
    • Regional allies like Bhutan, Afghanistan, and Bangladesh condemned terrorism, with some nations pulling out of the 2016 SAARC Summit in protest against Pakistan’s role.

    Operation Sindoor and 2025 Escalation

    • India’s Operation Sindoor, a response to a Lashkar-e-Taiba attack in 2025, marked a new level of escalation. 
    • With drone strikes, missile defences, and nuclear brinkmanship, it highlighted India’s military superiority. 
    • Pakistan’s economic crisis (GDP growth at -0.2% in 2023) and dependency on Chinese loans (US$2.2 billion) further weakened its standing.
    • Despite the scale of the conflict, South Asian nations maintained strategic neutrality, condemning terrorism while urging dialogue. 
    • This approach aimed to safeguard agency and benefit from both India’s economy and China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI).

    China, the US, and External Power Dynamics

    • China’s Expanding Influence: Through initiatives like the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) and broader BRI, China has become a key actor in the region. 
      • While South Asian nations welcome Chinese investment, they remain cautious not to fully align against India.
    • US and Russian Engagement: The United States promotes regional connectivity through the I2U2 framework and the India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC). 
      • Meanwhile, Russia balances relations, supporting India on Kashmir while engaging Pakistan and China to extend its strategic influence.

    India’s Neighbourhood First Policy: A Balancing Act

      • Launched in 2014, India’s Neighbourhood First Policy focuses on economic support and connectivity. Major aid includes:
    • US$8 billion to Bangladesh 
    • US$1.6 billion to Nepal 
    • US$1 billion to Bhutan 
    • US$850 million to the Maldives 
    • US$4.5 billion to Sri Lanka 
    • Despite this outreach, anti-India sentiments persist, driven by water disputes, border tensions, and historical grievances. 
      • China and Pakistan often exploit these sentiments to destabilise India’s regional image.
    • India also continues measured engagement with adversaries, renewing the Kartarpur Corridor agreement with Pakistan in 2024, although cross-border terrorism remains a key barrier to normalisation.

    Neutrality, Balance, and Regional Stability

    • The India-Pakistan rivalry remains central to South Asia’s geopolitics. While India’s influence grows, neighbouring countries strategically maintain neutrality and autonomy, balancing relationships with India, China, and other global powers. 
    • Initiatives like SAARC, BIMSTEC, and BBIN reflect the region’s aspiration for peace, connectivity, and cooperation.
    • As geopolitical fault lines deepen, strategic neutrality, economic pragmatism, and multilateral diplomacy will define South Asia’s path forward in navigating the complex India-Pakistan balance.

     

     

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  • Eruption of Mount Etna

    Eruption of Mount Etna

    What Caused the Massive Eruption of Italy’s Mount Etna?

     

     

    Context: Italy’s Mount Etna, Europe’s largest and most active volcano, recently erupted in a dramatic display of volcanic power. The eruption sent towering plumes of ash, smoke, and rock fragments several kilometres into the sky, creating a breathtaking sight. 

    About Mount Etna

    • Mount Etna is situated on the east coast of Sicily, the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, just off the “toe” of Italy’s boot-shaped mainland. 
    • As the highest peak in Italy south of the Alps, Mount Etna is a dominant feature of the Sicilian landscape and one of the most closely monitored volcanoes in the world.
    • Its summit is home to five craters, which frequently erupt. In addition, over 300 vents scattered along the mountain’s slopes can produce what are known as flank eruptions. 
    • These eruptions are quite common; since the year 1600, there have been over 60 flank eruptions and numerous summit explosions. 
    • Etna has erupted multiple times in the past two decades alone, with major activity recorded in 2001, 2002–03, 2012, 2018, and most recently, 2021.
    • Designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2013, Mount Etna has a documented eruptive history spanning at least 2,700 years, with geological records indicating volcanic activity dating back over 500,000 years.

    What Triggered the Latest Mount Etna Eruption?

    • According to experts at Italy’s National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology (INGV), the eruption likely started due to increased internal pressure from expanding volcanic gases. 
    • This pressure is believed to have caused the collapse of Etna’s southeast crater, which in turn led to lava flows and the dramatic release of volcanic material into the sky.

    Strombolian or Plinian: What Kind of Eruption Was It?

    • Initial observations suggested that Mount Etna experienced a Strombolian eruption, named after Italy’s Stromboli volcano. 
    • This eruption type is known for moderate, explosive bursts that eject lava fragments, cinders, and rocks. 
    • These eruptions occur when gas bubbles trapped in magma reach the surface and burst violently—much like gas escaping from a shaken soda bottle.
    • However, some volcanologists argue that the scale and height of the ash cloud—extending several kilometres high—indicate a Plinian eruption. 
    • Plinian eruptions are far more explosive, sending ash, gas, and rock into the stratosphere and often covering large areas with debris. 
    • Such eruptions are named after Pliny the Younger, who documented the catastrophic eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD.

    The recent eruption of Mount Etna serves as a powerful reminder of the volcanic activity that continues to shape Earth’s geology. Whether Strombolian or Plinian, the event showcased the dynamic nature of the volcano, which remains under close scientific observation.

     

     

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  • Heatwaves in India

    Heatwaves in India

    Heatwaves impacting the country’s labour productivity?

    Context: India has seen an early arrival of the monsoon in 2025, providing a much-needed break from one of the most intense heatwaves in recent years. 

     

     

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    • Heatwave conditions were reported as early as late February and intensified across the country by April. 
    • While the early rains bring temporary relief, the long-term impacts of heatwaves on public health, livelihoods, agriculture, and the economy are growing more serious every year.

    Heatwaves Are Becoming More Frequent and Dangerous

    • Occurrence: Heatwaves — periods of abnormally high temperatures — typically occur between March and June, peaking in May. 
      • But in recent years, these extreme heat events have started earlier and become more severe. 
      • According to a Council on Energy, Environment and Water (CEEW) study, heat extremes in India have risen linearly from 1981 to 2022, leading to landmark heatwaves in 2013, 2016, 2019, 2022, and 2024.
    • Coverage: Today, 57% of Indian districts, accounting for 76% of the population, face high to very high heat risks. 
      • States like Delhi, Maharashtra, Kerala, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and Andhra Pradesh are among the most vulnerable.

    Urbanisation and the Urban Heat Island Effect

    • Urban Heat Island: Concrete-heavy cities retain heat during the day, delaying night-time cooling. This leads to warmer nights. 
      • Cities like Pune, Guwahati, Kolhapur, and Thoothukudi have seen a massive expansion of built-up areas, intensifying heat risks in Tier II and Tier III cities.
    • Impacts: Without access to cooling mechanisms, this leads to sleep disturbances, reduced productivity, and health risks.

    Heatwaves Hurt India’s Informal Workers and Economy

    • A 2024 report by the International Labour Organization (ILO) warned that over 70% of workers globally are exposed to extreme heat, with India among the hardest-hit. 
    • The country lost an estimated $100 billion due to heat-induced productivity losses, with small businesses and informal workers—construction workers, street vendors, delivery agents, and farmers—bearing the brunt.
    • A 2022 World Bank study projected that India will account for 34 million of the expected 80 million global job losses due to heat-related productivity decline.
      • Around 75% of India’s workforce—over 380 million people—depend on heat-exposed labor.
    • In the manufacturing sector, a 1°C rise in temperature has been linked to a 2% drop in output, driven by reduced productivity and increased absenteeism.

    Impact on Agriculture and Rural Livelihoods

    • Extreme heat is also threatening India’s food security. Studies show that every 1°C rise in temperature can reduce wheat yields by 5.2%. 
      • Heat stress late in the rice-growing season also damages crops. 
      • Livestock and farm animals face direct heat-related risks as well.
    • In rural India, the peak summer months are lean periods for farming, so many rural workers take up non-farm jobs like construction or road-building — sectors that expose them directly to the sun. 

    India’s Heatwave Action Plans and Government Response

    • Recognising the growing threat, the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), in collaboration with the Union Ministry of Home Affairs, has issued guidelines to protect India’s workforce from extreme heat. 

    • These include:

      • Heat education and awareness campaigns
      • Adjusting work schedules
      • Providing access to water, medical aid, and cooling
      • Ensuring appropriate clothing for outdoor workers
    • However, the current focus is largely urban-centric, despite the fact that rural India, with weaker healthcare infrastructure, is equally vulnerable.

    With more than 23 States now heatwave-prone and both daytime and nighttime temperatures rising, India must act swiftly. A coordinated strategy involving climate-resilient urban planning, rural health infrastructure upgrades, and worker protections is critical.

     

     

     

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  • Japan’s AI Law

    Japan’s AI Law

    How Japan’s new AI Act fosters an innovation-first ecosystem

    Context: In May 2025, Japan enacted a landmark piece of legislation: the Act on the Promotion of Research, Development and Utilisation of Artificial Intelligence-Related Technologies. 

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    • This law represents more than a national policy shift — it signals a philosophical departure from dominant global regulatory trends. 
    • At a time when the European Union and other regions are tightening AI oversight through legally binding frameworks, Japan is charting a different course: one grounded in coordination, voluntary responsibility, and innovation-first governance.

    The Japanese Approach vs. European Union’s Model

    • EU AI Act (2024): Risk-based, restrictive framework classifying AI into tiers from “Unacceptable” to “Minimal.”

      • Imposes legally binding obligations and strict penalties for high-risk AI applications in health, education, employment, law enforcement, etc.
      • Emphasises human dignity, digital sovereignty, and enforceability.

    • Japan’s AI Law:

      • Avoids risk classification and binding enforcement mechanisms.
      • Focuses on enabling innovation, encouraging collaboration, and fostering international competitiveness.
      • Establishes an Artificial Intelligence Strategy Headquarters under the Cabinet to formulate a national Basic Plan for AI covering research, industrial deployment, international cooperation, and public education.
      • Assigns cooperative roles to local governments, universities, businesses, and the public under shared ethical principles.

    Key Features of Japan’s AI Governance Model

    • No rigid regulatory burdens or legally binding penalties.
    • AI is framed as foundational for societal development, economic growth, administrative efficiency, and national security.
    • The state’s responsibility includes facilitating research, creating shared infrastructure, supporting workforce development, and ensuring transparency and ethical AI use.
    • Article 13 mandates government guidelines reflecting international norms to prevent harms such as misuse, privacy breaches, and IP violations — but without hard rules or penalties.

    • Assumptions:

      • Innovation ecosystems thrive best without heavy regulation.
      • Voluntary cooperation guided by national coordination and ethics can mitigate AI risks.

    Strengths of Japan’s Approach

    • Avoids the “chilling effect” of overregulation on innovation and development.
    • Creates an innovation-first ecosystem spanning public and private sectors.
    • Positions the government as a facilitator rather than a regulator, boosting industry and academic confidence.
    • Encourages international alignment while maintaining a uniquely flexible domestic framework.

    Challenges and Risks

    • The absence of clear standards and enforcement raises questions about accountability for AI harms, such as bias, disinformation, and failures.
    • Uncertainty on how voluntary principles will convert into enforceable safeguards in sensitive sectors like healthcare and defence.
    • Potential trade-off between agility and clarity/public trust.
    • Pressure may mount for clearer definitions of “responsible AI” as AI technologies (generative AI, autonomous systems) become widespread.

    Geopolitical and Economic Context

    • EU’s rights-based, cautious data governance tradition contrasts with Japan’s economic pressures: Shrinking workforce, global tech competition, and the need to boost domestic innovation.
    • Japan’s law reflects a strategic choice to prioritise science and technology for national growth.
    • Article 17 mandates active international cooperation and norm-setting, signalling Japan’s intent to lead in global AI governance forums (G7 Hiroshima Process, OECD, UN advisory body).

    Comparison with Other Global AI Governance Models

    • Japan’s model must also be understood in contrast to global regulatory trends. The EU AI Act, passed in 2024, reflects the bloc’s long-standing emphasis on rights-based digital governance, following the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR). It is rule-bound, enforceable, and risk-focused — a posture driven by caution around AI’s societal risks.
    • In the United States, the policy landscape is still evolving. The proposed AI Disclosure Act aims to define agency responsibilities, ensure transparency in training data and outputs, and protect national security, while allowing sectoral regulators to tailor rules to specific contexts. The U.S. strategy appears to be decentralised, pragmatic, and balance-seeking between innovation and oversight.
    • The United Arab Emirates offers yet another model. Its Office of Artificial Intelligence, national AI university, and AI sandbox programmes illustrate a state-led, investment-heavy approach. Pilot projects in education, health, and transport show how regulatory agility and executive vision can enable AI transformation while still maintaining public trust.
    • Japan’s model, by contrast, hinges on technocratic leadership and institutional trust. It assumes that public and private actors, if given direction, infrastructure, and ethical guidance, will self-regulate in the interest of national and global well-being. That’s a bold assumption.

    The Global Implications and Future Outlook

    • Japan’s model tests whether responsibility without rigidity can be sustainable and scalable.
    • If successful, it could offer an alternative to deregulation and enforcement-heavy regimes.
    • Failure may highlight risks of insufficient regulation in transformative technological domains.
    • Japan’s choice to lead with coordination rather than control sets a precedent watched closely by the global AI community.

     

     

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  • France’s Nuclear Offer

    France’s Nuclear Offer

    What would a French nuclear umbrella mean for Europe?

    Context: On May 14, French President Emmanuel Macron declared that France is “open to dialogue” on the potential stationing of its nuclear weapons in other European countries. This announcement marks a significant strategic development against the backdrop of escalating security concerns in Europe, driven by the ongoing Russia-Ukraine war.

    Motivation Behind France’s Offer

    • The offer aligns with France’s policy of “European strategic autonomy,” aimed at strengthening the European Union’s ability to independently manage security and defence.
    • Macron’s speech at Sorbonne University highlighted the need for Europe to bolster its defence capabilities to become a more “sovereign Europe.”
    • This development is partly a response to the U.S. President Donald Trump’s prior questioning of unconditional U.S. security guarantees to NATO allies, especially linking support to the 2% GDP defence spending threshold.
    • European nations are therefore exploring additional security assurances beyond NATO’s traditional framework.
    • Historically, France has maintained strict control and independence over its nuclear deterrent, viewing it as a national asset. This openness marks a significant shift in French strategic doctrine.

    Understanding the Nuclear Sharing Model

    • France’s potential move draws attention to the “nuclear sharing” model, a concept already in practice within NATO. 
    • Under this model, the United States stationed tactical nuclear weapons — specifically, B61 gravity bombs — in five allied non-nuclear states: Belgium, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, and Turkiye.
    • In these arrangements:
      • The U.S. retains legal ownership and custody of the weapons.
      • The decision to use the weapons rests with the U.S. President, though it is expected to be made in consultation with NATO.
    • This Cold War-era framework is designed to:
      • Demonstrate alliance solidarity
      • Share the risks of nuclear deterrence
      • Act as a political and military signal to adversaries

    Is France Equipped for Extended Deterrence?

    • As of 2024, France maintains approximately 290 nuclear warheads, primarily deliverable through:
      • Submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs)
      • Air-launched cruise missiles via Rafale fighter jets
    • However, according to a 2023 Centre for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS) report, expanding France’s deterrent by basing nuclear weapons abroad would introduce logistical and doctrinal complexities. With its current arsenal, France may struggle to support credible extended deterrence without increasing its stockpile.
    • Additional complications would include:
      • Deploying French Air Force units, including Rafale jets, overseas
      • Building secure infrastructure and command-and-control systems in a multinational setting
      • Reconciling national control protocols with potential shared operational responsibilities

    Strategic and Security Implications

    • Potential Benefits:
        • It could strengthen deterrence against Russia, particularly as Moscow continues to issue threats and expand military operations near NATO borders
        • Demonstrates European resolve and reduces dependency on U.S. nuclear guarantees
        • May reinforce internal cohesion within NATO and the EU by offering new security assurances
    • Risks and Escalation:
      • Russia is likely to interpret the move as a major escalation. Moscow has already warned against NATO’s eastward expansion and militarisation.
      • In 2023, Russia deployed tactical nuclear weapons in Belarus, which many Western analysts see as an escalatory precedent.
      • A broader nuclear deployment across Europe may provoke “military-technical” responses from Russia, further destabilising the region.

    Legal Considerations Under International Law

    • The proposal must also be viewed through the lens of international law, particularly the 1968 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT):
      • Article I of the NPT prohibits nuclear-armed states from transferring nuclear weapons or control over them to non-nuclear-weapon states.
      • NATO’s existing nuclear sharing is controversially justified as NPT-compliant on the grounds that:
        • Legal ownership is not transferred
        • Custody remains with the U.S. at all times, including during peacetime
    • Critics and non-proliferation advocates have consistently challenged this interpretation, arguing that even the potential for use by non-nuclear allies undermines the treaty’s spirit. France, if it adopts a similar model, will face intense legal scrutiny, especially given its historical position as a staunch defender of NPT principles.

     

     

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  • Strengthening India-US Digital Ties

    Strengthening India-US Digital Ties

    Strengthening the US-India subsea cable agenda

     

    Context: The commercial partnership between India and the United States is gaining momentum across multiple strategic domains — going well beyond the contours of a soon-to-be-signed bilateral trade agreement.

     

     

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    • Both countries are aligning their efforts to de-risk and diversify global technology supply chains, especially in light of growing geopolitical uncertainties.
    • At the heart of this cooperation is the Technology for Resilient, Open and Unified Security and Trust (TRUST) framework — an evolved successor to the U.S.-India Initiative on Critical and Emerging Technology (iCET). 
    • This framework is rapidly becoming a foundation for deeper digital connectivity and supply chain collaboration across the Indo-Pacific.

    U.S.-India Trade Deal to Cement Digital Cooperation

    • As part of this growing synergy, the first tranche of a U.S.-India trade agreement is expected to be signed ahead of the upcoming Quad Summit, to be hosted by India and attended by U.S. President Donald Trump later this year. 
    • This landmark deal is set to unlock new opportunities in digital technologies, cybersecurity, and next-generation infrastructure.

    Subsea Cables: The Digital Lifelines of the Indo-Pacific

    • Amid these developments, subsea cables — which transmit over 95% of the world’s international data — are emerging as a key focus area. 
    • These undersea fiber-optic cables form the physical backbone of the internet, supporting everything from cloud services to digital commerce.
    • India’s role in this infrastructure is set to expand, especially as a strategic counterweight to China’s Digital Silk Road, which is rapidly building subsea networks across the Indo-Pacific. 
    • In response, a joint India-U.S. commitment to building secure, trusted, and resilient subsea cable systems would offer a vital global public good.

    India’s Strategic Potential as a Regional Digital Hub

    • India currently hosts around 17 subsea cables, with more under development. 
      • However, this number still trails smaller countries like Singapore, which has 26. 
    • Given India’s 11,098-kilometre coastline, central geographic position between Europe, Africa, and Southeast Asia, and booming digital economy, the country is ideally positioned to become a regional connectivity hub.
    • Yet, over-concentration of cable landing stations remains a vulnerability. 
      • Today, 15 out of India’s 17 international cables land along a mere six-kilometre stretch in Mumbai. 
      • These landing stations — key facilities connecting undersea cables to onshore infrastructure — are clustered in just five cities: Mumbai, Chennai, Kochi, Tuticorin, and Thiruvananthapuram.
    • To improve network redundancy and resilience, India must diversify landing station locations. 
      • Past incidents, such as the Houthi attack on subsea cables in the Red Sea (2024), underscore the dangers of over-reliance on single points. 

    Subsea Cables and Maritime Trade: A Historic Overlap

    • India’s proximity to strategic choke points like the Strait of Hormuz, Strait of Malacca, and Bab-el-Mandeb strengthens its natural position as a digital gateway. 
      • With soaring bandwidth demands projected to grow by 38% between 2021 and 2028, bolstered by digital consumption and data center growth, this infrastructure is becoming ever more critical.
    • In addition to servicing domestic needs, India also sits at a crucial junction for Africa-Asia and Europe-Asia subsea traffic. 
      • Strengthening this positioning directly contributes to countering China’s digital dominance in the region — a consistent priority in American foreign policy.

    Way Forward

    • India must act decisively to encourage investment in this space. 
      • The current licensing regime for undersea cable projects is highly complex, requiring over 50 clearances from multiple ministries. 
    • Streamlining these procedures is essential to attract global capital and expertise.
    • Additionally, India relies heavily on foreign-flagged cable repair vessels, largely stationed in Singapore and Dubai. 
      • In the event of damage, it can take 3–5 months for these ships to reach Indian waters — due to distance and time-consuming permissions. 
    • Establishing a domestic cable repair ecosystem, including Indian-flagged ships and local depots, is an urgent commercial and strategic necessity.

    Deepening cooperation on subsea cable infrastructure will be a vital pillar of the evolving India-U.S. strategic partnership. As negotiations on a broader trade deal progress, advancing digital connectivity through shared investments and policy alignment will reinforce mutual economic security, digital resilience, and strategic autonomy in the Indo-Pacific.

     

     

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  • Ahilyabai Holkar

    Ahilyabai Holkar

    Early Life

    • Ahilyabai Holkar (31 May 1725 – 13 August 1795), also spelled Ahalya Bai, was born in the village of Chondi (now in Ahmednagar district, Maharashtra) into a humble Marathi Hindu family. 
    • Her father, Mankoji Rao Shinde, was the village Patil (headman) and taught her to read and write at a time when girls’ education was rare. 

    Her piety and strength of character caught the attention of Malhar Rao Holkar, a prominent Maratha noble, who arranged her marriage to his son, Khanderao Holkar, in 1733 when she was just a child.

     

     

    Rise to Power

    • Ahilyabai’s life changed dramatically after her husband Khanderao was killed in the battle of Kumher in 1754. 
    • Grief-stricken, she considered committing sati (self-immolation), but her father-in-law Malhar Rao dissuaded her and instead trained her in statecraft and military affairs. 
    • Following the deaths of Malhar Rao in 1766 and her son Male Rao in 1767, Ahilyabai became the ruler of the Holkar dynasty, taking charge of the Malwa kingdom within the Maratha Empire.

    Reign and Governance

    • Ahilyabai Holkar ruled from 1767 to 1795, with her capital at Maheshwar on the Narmada River. 
    • Her reign is widely regarded as the golden era of the Holkar dynasty, noted for peace, prosperity, and just governance. 
    • She was accessible to her subjects, held daily audiences, and established courts for justice and arbitration. 
    • Breaking social norms, she did not observe purdah (seclusion) and was known for her direct involvement in administration and military affairs, even personally leading armies into battle when necessary.
    • She appointed Tukoji Rao Holkar as her military commander and also modernised her army by engaging foreign experts. 
    • Ahilyabai was a pragmatic ruler who strengthened the kingdom’s finances, revitalised trade routes, and created grain reserves to mitigate famine. 
    • She also encouraged bandit communities to turn to honest livelihoods, further stabilising her region.

    Social Reforms and Philanthropy

    • She built hundreds of Hindu temples, ghats, wells, rest houses (dharmshalas), and gardens across India, not just within her own territory but in distant pilgrimage centers such as Kashi (Varanasi), Somnath, Gaya, Ayodhya, Mathura, Haridwar, Ujjain, Omkareshwar, and Kanchipuram. 
    • Her most notable contributions include the rebuilding of the Kashi Vishwanath Temple in Varanasi and the Grishneshwar Temple near Aurangabad. 
    • She also established a textile industry in Maheshwar, giving rise to the famous Maheshwari sari.

    Legacy

    • Ahilyabai Holkar is remembered as one of India’s most visionary and benevolent female rulers. 
    • Her reign is often cited as a model of good governance, social welfare, and religious tolerance. 
    • She is revered as a saintly figure (Sadhvi) and is affectionately called “Lokmata” (Mother of the People) and “Punyashlok” (One as Pure as the Sacred Chants). 
    • Upon her death in 1795, she was succeeded by Tukoji Rao Holkar.

    Her legacy is celebrated annually on Ahilyabai Holkar Jayanti (31 May), and her contributions to Indian society, architecture, and culture are still honored today.

     

     

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  • India’s Heatwaves: Crisis, Consequences, and the Call for Climate-Smart Action

    India’s Heatwaves: Crisis, Consequences, and the Call for Climate-Smart Action

    Indian summers are getting hotter, but is it the heat or is it us?

     

     

    Context: India is undeniably heating up. Heat waves are arriving earlier, lasting longer, and intensifying in ways that are fundamentally reshaping life, work, and public health across the country.

    A Shifting Climate

    • According to the India Meteorological Department (IMD), a heatwave is declared when temperatures in the plains hit 40°C or more, or 30°C in the hills, and remain 4.5°C or more above normal for at least two consecutive days. These conditions, once infrequent, are fast becoming the seasonal norm.
    • Between 2010 and 2024, India’s cumulative heatwave days rose from 177 to 536, a staggering >200% increase. Heatwave days count events across all affected regions and may exceed the length of the summer in a single location.
    • The 2025 summer began harshly, with heatwave conditions as early as February 27–28, and intensified through early April, before the monsoon arrived a week early, offering momentary relief.

    Geography of Vulnerability

    • India’s vulnerability is widespread. A CEEW report notes that 57% of districts — home to 76% of the population — face high to very high heat risk. The most vulnerable states include: Delhi, Maharashtra, Kerala, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh.
    • Over the last four decades (1981–2022), India has seen a linear increase in extreme heat events, including landmark heat waves in 2013, 2016, 2019, 2022, and 2024. 
      • Notably, the number of very warm nights is rising faster than hot days, especially in urban centres, where concrete and asphalt absorb and retain heat — a phenomenon known as the urban heat island effect.
    • Rapid urbanisation has intensified this effect. Between 2005 and 2023, built-up areas expanded rapidly, especially in Tier-II and Tier-III cities like Pune, Thoothukudi, Kolhapur, and Guwahati.

    Heat and the Workforce: Economic Impact

    • The economic consequences of extreme heat are already visible:
      • The International Labour Organization (ILO) in 2024 warned that over 70% of workers globally face excessive heat exposure.
      • India lost an estimated $100 billion due to heat-induced productivity losses.

    Informal Sector at the Frontlines

    • Informal workers — including farmers, construction workers, delivery partners, and street vendors — are disproportionately affected. 
      • A World Bank 2022 report states that 75% of India’s workforce (380 million people) depend on heat-exposed labour. Alarmingly, India may account for 34 million of the 80 million global job losses expected from heat stress.
      • In Delhi, informal workers experienced:
        • 40% lower net earnings during heatwaves in May–June.
        • Increased absenteeism, sleeplessness, and illness.
    • In factories, manufacturing output is estimated to drop by ~2% for every 1°C rise in temperature (Dr. Somanathan, ISI). Higher productivity incentivizes employers to invest in cooling — a potential pathway to protect workers.

    Agriculture and Rural India

    • Heat doesn’t spare the countryside. In rural areas, agricultural workers often shift to non-farm jobs such as road construction and building work during lean periods. These jobs expose them to extreme heat without safeguards.
      • A 1°C rise reduces wheat yield by 5.2%.
      • Heatwaves during late rice growing seasons also hurt productivity.
    • Livestock are also at risk, especially when temperature and humidity cross critical thresholds. While guidelines exist for animal protection, enforcement is poor, particularly for small and medium farmers.
    • When heatwaves coincide with droughts or food shortages, their impact multiplies — threatening food security and livelihoods. Unseasonal heat events in early March or late October are also damaging, disrupting typical growing cycles.

    Health, Mortality, and Underreporting

    • From 2000 to 2020, 20,615 deaths were officially attributed to heatstroke in India. However, many more go unreported or are misclassified under broader causes such as cardiac arrest or respiratory failure, especially in rural or informal settings.
    • This underreporting stems from:
      • Lack of real-time surveillance.
      • Absence of standardised death certification.
      • Gaps in medical access in remote or low-income areas.
    • To address this, researchers use excess mortality analysis — comparing observed deaths during heat periods with historical averages. The Global Burden of Disease Study (2021) estimated ~155,937 heat-related deaths in India, accounting for both direct and indirect effects of high temperatures.

    Institutional Response: Heat Action Plans

    • India has begun responding through Heat Action Plans (HAPs), pioneered in cities like Ahmedabad, where implementation in 2014 led to 1,190 fewer deaths annually in the initial years.
    • These plans include:
      • Short-term measures: water availability, cooling shelters, shaded areas, public awareness.
      • Long-term adaptation: urban greening, restoration of water bodies, passive cooling in buildings.
    • Chennai has incorporated urban heat island mapping into its master plan, while cities like Bhubaneswar and Nagpur are expanding green cover and adopting rooftop reflectivity measures.
    • However, rural India remains largely uncovered. No heat governance equivalent exists for villages, despite the fact that most vulnerable populations reside in rural areas. Local bodies like Gram Panchayats lack funding, trained personnel, and institutional support to tackle heat systematically.

    Funding and Policy Integration

    • States can access their State Disaster Management Fund for emergency heat response. However, experts argue for long-term investments via:
      • District Mineral Funds
      • Fifteenth Finance Commission allocations
      • Integration with schemes like MGNREGA, PM Awas Yojana, and National Health Mission.
    • Innovations such as heatwave insurance are being tested, where workers pay small premiums and receive compensation when extreme heat halts work. However, implementation remains inconsistent.

    Blending Tradition with Modernity

    • India’s history holds valuable lessons. Traditional cooling techniques — mud homes, step-wells, lime plaster, jaalis, water-cooled courtyards — were not just cultural; they were climate-wise. 
    • Practices like Navtapa (May 25–June 2) promoted light diets, hydration, and midday rest — aligning remarkably with modern climate science.
    • Yet, post-liberalisation development overlooked these practices. Glass façades, concrete homes, and tight work schedules replaced solar-aligned, breathable, and adaptive lifestyles. Planning codes do not mandate passive cooling; real estate finance rarely supports traditional architecture.

    Way Forward

    • Immediate Actions:
        • Roll out district-level heat action plans, urban and rural alike.
        • Identify heat hotspots, set up shaded rest areas, and ensure clean drinking water.
        • Launch multilingual, non-digital public awareness campaigns.
    • Medium-Term:
        • Integrate heat adaptation into flagship schemes like:
          • MGNREGA (adjusted work schedules)
          • PM Awas Yojana (cool roofing, natural ventilation)
          • National Health Mission (heat-related healthcare)
    • Long-Term Transformation:
      • Revise building codes to favour passive cooling.
      • Institutional coordination between:
        • IMD, NDMA, SDMAs
        • Urban local bodies, rural panchayats
      • Support cooling infrastructure and climate-resilient designs.

     

     

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  • Why Technicalising India’s Waste Crisis Is Not the Solution

    Why Technicalising India’s Waste Crisis Is Not the Solution

     

    India’s Waste Crisis: Why Technical Solutions Alone Won’t Suffice

    Context: India’s mounting waste crisis is often seen through the lens of technological solutions, with policymakers promoting high-tech fixes as silver bullets. However, this approach overlooks the underlying social, economic, and political complexities that drive the problem.

    Reductionist Approach Masks Root Causes

    • Simplifies Complexity: Treating waste as a purely technological issue ignores the deeper causes—unsustainable production, consumption patterns, and weak governance.
    • Success/Failure Framed Narrowly: The focus shifts to whether technology works, sidelining questions about health, environment, and social impacts.

    Obsession with Waste-to-Energy (WTE) Incineration

    • Imported Models: India’s fascination with WTE plants, mostly imported from the West, ignores their failures and phase-outs in developed countries due to toxicity and pollution.
    • Ignoring Global Trends: While the US and EU move away from WTE, India continues to build more, often under pressure from international corporations seeking new markets.

    Techno-Fetishism and Foreign Dependence

    • Western Imitation: Policymakers favour “state-of-the-art” Western technologies, overlooking low-cost, decentralised, indigenous waste management methods proven effective in Indian contexts.
    • Operational Failures: Most WTE plants in India fail to meet emission standards and face frequent breakdowns due to incompatibility with Indian waste and conditions.
    • Economic Burden: These projects require heavy subsidies, grants, and public investments, with little hope of financial recovery due to high operational costs and frequent failures.

    Ignoring Past Lessons

    • Lack of Reflection: There’s little analysis of why past technological interventions failed, leading to repeated mistakes and wasted resources.
    • White Elephants: WTE plants often become costly, underutilised assets, draining public funds under the guise of progress.

    Neglect of Indigenous and People-Centric Solutions

    • Traditional Practices Overlooked: Decentralised composting and resource recovery, once common in India, are neglected in favour of expensive, centralised technologies.
    • Role of Waste Workers: Effective waste management must integrate the informal sector—waste pickers, sorters, recyclers—who are critical to the existing ecosystem.

    Production, Not Just Consumption, Is the Core Problem

    • Plastic Proliferation: The crisis is exacerbated by the unchecked production of plastics, most of which are single-use and non-recyclable.
    • Need for Production Reduction: Real solutions require curbing plastic production and promoting sustainable alternatives, not just managing the waste generated.

    Holistic, Inclusive Solutions Needed

    • Beyond Technology: Addressing the waste crisis demands policy reforms, public awareness, and systemic changes in production and consumption.
    • Community Involvement: Empowering local communities and integrating traditional methods can offer sustainable, context-specific solutions.

    Conclusion

    Technical fixes alone cannot solve India’s waste crisis. A shift towards holistic, inclusive, and sustainable approaches—rooted in local realities and supported by strong policies—is essential for meaningful progress. Technology can play a supporting role, but it cannot replace the need for systemic change.

     

     

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  • Urban Flooding Solution: Powerful Strategies to Build Resilient Indian Cities

    Urban Flooding Solution: Powerful Strategies to Build Resilient Indian Cities

    Urban Flooding: Key Opportunities to Transform India’s City Infrastructure

    Context: Indian cities face recurring flooding during monsoons, with recent incidents in Delhi, Mumbai, and Gurugram highlighting the issue. These floods disrupt daily life, damage infrastructure, and lead to major economic losses. Instances like Gurugram’s waterlogging after moderate rain and Delhi’s submerged streets expose the chronic failure of urban drainage systems.

    Understanding the Causes of Urban Flooding

    • Inadequate Drainage Infrastructure: Outdated, poorly planned drainage systems in Indian cities often lack capacity for heavy rainfall and are clogged by silt and waste due to irregular maintenance, leading to frequent overflows and worsening urban flooding.
    • Unplanned Urbanisation: Rapid urban growth and encroachment on water bodies and wetlands for development have destroyed natural flood buffers, disrupting drainage. 
      • Chennai’s 2015 floods, worsened by construction on marshlands, underscore the impact of such environmental neglect.
    • Poor Urban Planning: Urban planning often overlooks drainage, with disjointed systems, inadequate stormwater infrastructure, and neglect of natural topography, leading to water accumulation in low-lying areas and poor resilience to extreme weather events.
    • Climate Change and Extreme Weather: Climate change has intensified monsoons and increased urban runoff through the heat island effect, overwhelming outdated drainage systems and highlighting the urgent need to upgrade infrastructure to handle more frequent and intense rainfall.
    • Waste Management Failures: Clogged drains from plastic, food waste, and debris, worsened by poor waste segregation and inefficient municipal garbage management, significantly reduce drainage efficiency and contribute to frequent urban flooding.
    • Policy and Governance Challenges: Poor coordination among multiple agencies, inadequate funding, and weak enforcement of regulations on encroachments and dumping hinder effective drainage management, delaying necessary upgrades and contributing to recurring urban flooding.

     

     

    Impacts of Urban Flooding

    • Humanitarian and Public Health Risks: Floodwaters often mix with sewage, triggering outbreaks of diseases like cholera, dengue, and leptospirosis. 
      • Monsoons displace thousands and cause widespread homelessness, while the constant disruption also takes a growing psychological toll on urban residents.
    • Economic Losses: Urban floods in Indian metros cause annual losses exceeding ₹15,000 crore, damaging infrastructure, disrupting services, and affecting businesses. 
      • In May 2025, record rainfall in Bengaluru led to severe waterlogging and widespread economic disruption.

    Solutions and Recommendations

    • Modernising Drainage Systems: Invest in larger, well-designed stormwater drains with regular maintenance schedules.
    • Restoring Natural Water Bodies: Reclaim and protect lakes, ponds, and wetlands to enhance natural drainage.
    • Smart Urban Planning: Integrate drainage into city master plans, considering topography and climate risks.
    • Waste Management Reforms: Improve solid waste collection, segregation, and disposal to prevent drain blockages.
    • Community Participation: Engage citizens in maintaining clean drains and reporting encroachments.

     

    [stextbox id=’info’]

    Successful Case Studies

    • Indore’s Waste Management: Indore’s effective waste segregation and disposal systems have reduced drain clogging.
    • Singapore’s Drainage Model: Singapore’s integrated stormwater management, with large drains and real-time monitoring, offers a blueprint for Indian cities.

    Local Initiatives: Pilot projects in cities like Bengaluru, restoring lakes, show promise in improving natural drainage.

    [/stextbox]

     

    • Climate-Resilient Infrastructure: Build adaptive systems to handle extreme weather, such as permeable pavements and green roofs.
    • Centralised Governance: Establish a single authority to oversee drainage management for better coordination.

    Way Forward

    • Holistic Approach: Combine infrastructure upgrades, urban planning, and community involvement to address the crisis.
    • Public Awareness: Educate citizens on proper waste disposal and the importance of preserving natural water bodies.
    • Government Commitment: Prioritise funding and policy reforms to build resilient urban drainage systems.

    Long-Term Vision: Plan for sustainable urbanisation to prevent future drainage-related disasters.

     

     

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  • Is India the world’s fourth largest economy?

    Is India the world’s fourth largest economy?

    What It Really Means for the Economy and Citizens?

     

     

    Context: India is set to overtake Japan as the world’s fourth-largest economy in 2025, according to recent projections by the International Monetary Fund (IMF). 

     

     

    More on News

    • With an estimated GDP of $4.19 trillion, India will trail only the United States, China, and Germany. 
    • By 2028, India could climb to the third position, with government sources hailing this as a result of strong leadership and a step toward achieving the ambitious ‘Viksit Bharat 2047’ vision.
    • While this milestone has generated significant media and political attention, the celebration of India’s economic size demands deeper scrutiny. 

     

     

    Many Faces of GDP: Why Bigger Doesn’t Always Mean Better

    • Limitations of GDP: Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is a common measure of a country’s economic output. 
      • However, GDP does not reflect how wealth is distributed, how healthy or educated people are, or how well they live. 
      • It also ignores unpaid but essential economic activities—such as domestic work, often carried out by women. 
      • Over time, many experts and economists have called for moving beyond GDP as the sole measure of national progress. Still, global and domestic discourse continues to prioritize it.
    • Politicisation: What complicates the picture further is the politicisation of statistics in recent years, which often distorts objective assessments. 
      • The current debate on India’s GDP rank is one such example. Comparing the GDP of different countries is far from straightforward—it depends on how GDP is calculated and converted into a common currency like the U.S. dollar.

    How GDP Is Measured: Market Exchange Rate vs. Purchasing Power Parity (PPP)

    To compare national economies, GDP must be expressed in a single currency. This is usually done in two ways:

    • Market Exchange Rate (MER) Method: This uses real-time currency exchange rates to convert a country’s GDP into U.S. dollars. 
      • By this method, India ranked fifth globally since 2021, and is projected to become the fourth-largest economy in 2025, overtaking Japan. It may become the third-largest by 2028.
    • Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) Method: The PPP method accounts for differences in cost of living and price levels across countries. 
      • It compares how much a “basket of goods” would cost in different economies. 
      • Since goods and services tend to be cheaper in developing countries, their GDP looks larger when adjusted for PPP. 
        • For example, a Big Mac may cost $12 in New York but just $4.50 in Mumbai. A haircut in New York may be $30, while it’s just $2.40 in India.

    As a result, under the PPP method: India became the third-largest economy as early as 2009. The IMF’s PPP projections show no rank change between 2024 and 2030.

    • So why has the government opted to highlight MER-based GDP rankings? Simply put, it suits a political narrative of rapid global ascent—even though PPP-based rankings tell a more consistent, long-term story.

     

     

    Understanding the Limitations of PPP and GDP Rankings

    • While PPP-adjusted GDP offers a fairer view of real economic capacity, it can also inflate the economic status of poorer countries. 
    • This is because low wages and prices make goods and services appear more affordable. But these lower prices also stem from deep structural issues such as:
      • Widespread informal employment
      • Low productivity
      • Wage suppression
      • Unpaid labor
    • For instance, 76% of India’s casual agricultural workers and 70% in construction earn below minimum wage (ILO India Employment Report, 2024). 
      • The reality is that lower prices in India reflect economic underdevelopment, not superior affordability.
    • Statements like those by NITI Aayog Vice-Chairperson Suman Berry, who claimed India’s PPP-based GDP had reached $15 trillion—half that of the U.S.—must be treated cautiously. These figures mask the glaring gap in per capita income and quality of life.

    India’s Per Capita GDP: The Real Indicator of Well-Being

    • Per Capita GDP: India may be climbing in total GDP size, but its per capita GDP remains low due to its massive population: $2,711 in 2024 (current dollars) – placing India among lower-middle-income countries.
      • In contrast, Vietnam’s per capita GDP reached $4,536, and Sri Lanka’s was $4,325.
      • Even in 1991, India had a higher per capita GDP than Vietnam—but by 2024, Vietnam had surged ahead.
    • Market Exchange Rate: In terms of market exchange rate, India ranked 144th out of 196 countries in per capita GDP in 2024. 
    • Even with PPP adjustments, it ranked only 127th.
      • This mismatch between total GDP and per capita GDP has led many to call this the “big economy illusion”—a scenario where total output hides persistent poverty and inequality.

    What Should We Measure Instead?

    To understand whether India is truly progressing, it’s important to look beyond GDP. A more accurate picture of development comes from indicators such as:

    • Life expectancy and healthcare quality
    • Literacy and education levels
    • Employment rates and job security
    • Access to clean water and sanitation
    • Gender parity in the workforce
    • Wealth and income inequality
    • These human development indicators offer a clearer sense of how people are living and working—not just how much their country produces.

    India’s expected rise to the fourth-largest economy in 2025 is no doubt a noteworthy milestone. But GDP rankings are not an end in themselves. True development must be measured by how well a nation meets the needs of its people.

     

     

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  • India’s Crypto Paradox

    India’s Crypto Paradox

    Regulating India’s virtual digital assets revolution

     

     

    Context: India has once again emerged as a global leader in grassroots cryptocurrency adoption, according to the 2024 Geography of Crypto report by Chainalysis. 

     

    More on News

    • For the second consecutive year, the country tops the global charts in retail crypto activity. 
    • A report by the National Association of Software and Service Companies (NASSCOM) further highlights this trend, revealing that Indian retail investors invested $6.6 billion in crypto assets. 
    • The report also predicts that the Web3 and crypto industry could generate over 800,000 jobs in India by 2030. 
    • India is also home to one of the world’s largest and fastest-growing communities of Web3 developers.

    Regulatory Status

    • This explosive growth, however, stands in stark contrast to India’s complex and often ambiguous crypto regulatory landscape. 
    • In May 2025, the Supreme Court of India openly questioned the lack of comprehensive regulation for crypto assets—referred to in India as Virtual Digital Assets (VDAs)—warning that banning the sector could mean “shutting your eyes to ground reality.” 
    • This statement underscores the significant disconnect between India’s thriving VDA market and its current policy framework.

    India’s VDA Policy Challenges

    • Strict Control: India operates under strict capital controls and a highly regulated financial ecosystem, making it difficult to integrate the decentralised nature of cryptocurrencies. 
    • RBI’s Stands: The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has long expressed concerns about crypto, starting in 2013, citing risks due to the lack of centralised oversight. 
      • In 2018, the RBI went as far as banning financial institutions from dealing with VDA-linked entities. This ban was overturned by the Supreme Court in 2020.
    • Taxation: Subsequently, the Indian government introduced taxation as a temporary measure to regulate the sector. Two major tax policies were rolled out in 2022 under the Income Tax Act:
      • A 1% Tax Deducted at Source (TDS) on VDA transactions exceeding ₹10,000 (Section 194S)
    • A 30% capital gains tax with no offsetting of losses (Section 115BBH)
      • Limited Success: While intended to bring transparency and discourage speculative trading, these tax measures have had limited success. 
        • According to industry estimates, between July 2022 and December 2023, Indian investors traded over ₹1.03 trillion worth of crypto on offshore, non-compliant platforms. 
    • Only 9% of an estimated ₹1.12 trillion in VDAs were held on Indian exchanges.
      •  Offshore trading led to a tax loss of ₹2,488 crore during this period. From December 2023 to October 2024, offshore crypto trading volumes soared to ₹2.63 trillion, with uncollected TDS revenue surpassing ₹60 billion.

    VASPs: The Missing Link in India’s Crypto Regulation

    • Global regulatory bodies like the IMF, Financial Stability Board, and the Financial Action Task Force (FATF) endorse risk-based, internationally harmonised crypto regulations. 
      • Central to these frameworks are compliant Virtual Asset Service Providers (VASPs), which serve as intermediaries that align the crypto industry with domestic regulations.
    • India’s current policy setup, however, unintentionally incentivises users to shift to non-compliant offshore platforms, undermining both regulatory oversight and potential tax revenues.
    • In contrast, Indian VASPs are rapidly maturing and demonstrating robust compliance frameworks. 
    • Their collaboration with the Financial Intelligence Unit-India (FIU-IND) has significantly strengthened India’s anti-money laundering and counter-terrorism financing measures, earning praise from the FATF. 

    Way Ahead

    • India’s VDA ecosystem has the potential to drive economic growth, create employment, and position the country as a global Web3 hub. However, the current regulatory vacuum—where taxation exists without meaningful policy clarity—risks stifling innovation and encouraging capital flight.
    • To unlock the sector’s full potential, India needs a comprehensive, future-ready regulatory framework. Such a framework should be balanced and pragmatic, providing clear guidelines for compliance, fostering innovation, protecting consumers, and ensuring that financial and systemic risks are effectively managed.

    India stands at a critical crossroads in crypto regulation. With global leadership in retail adoption and a strong base of developers and VASPs, the country has the tools it needs to build a thriving, regulated VDA ecosystem. What’s missing is decisive legislative action. A forward-thinking regulatory framework can transform India from a crypto leader by default into a crypto leader by design.

     

     

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  • Bridging with Natural Gas: A Key Opportunity for India’s Clean Energy Transition

    Bridging with Natural Gas: A Key Opportunity for India’s Clean Energy Transition

    Bridging with Natural Gas: Unlocking Critical Investment Potential in India’s Energy Future

    Context: Natural gas is globally promoted as a ‘bridge fuel’ in the transition to net-zero emissions.However, the political and investment landscape surrounding natural gas is complex, particularly in developing countries like India. 

    India’s Declining Share of Natural Gas

    [stextbox id=’info’]

    Political Economy of Natural Gas: Beyond Good vs. Bad

    • The promotion of natural gas is not a binary issue of environmental benefit vs. harm.
    • Political decisions are driven more by distributional impacts than by scientific facts or majority interests.
    • Public choice theory indicates that policy outcomes are often shaped by well-organised minorities rather than the energy-poor majority.
    • In energy policy, these minorities include activist groups and well-funded lobbyists, not always aligned with broader public welfare.
    • As per Gordon Tullock, lobbyists influence policy by providing overwhelming information and expertise to overburdened bureaucracies.

    [/stextbox]

    • India’s natural gas share in primary energy consumption fell from 9.4% in 2010 to 5.8% in 2023.
    • Key reasons:
      • High import dependency and rising prices.
      • Inadequate domestic production.
      • Competition from cheaper coal for base-load power needs.

    Reasons for declining share of Natural Gas: 

    • Influence of Global Narratives on Indian Investment
      • Decisions in India are indirectly influenced by lobbying in natural gas-exporting countries, especially in the Global North.
      • The ‘Baptist and Bootlegger’ theory by Bruce Yandle (1983) explains how:
        • Environmentalists (Baptists) supported natural gas for climate reasons.
        • The shale gas industry (Bootleggers) backed it for commercial gains.
      • Example: US tycoons like Aubrey McClendon and T. Boone Pickens funded massive campaigns to promote natural gas as a clean alternative and pushed laws for gas infrastructure subsidies.

    • Methane Emissions: Complicating the Clean Image
        • Revised US EPA (2011) estimates increased methane emission figures by 120% for 2008.
        • Methane is 25 times more potent than CO₂ over a 20-year period, even though it persists for a shorter time.
        • Shale gas has an 8–11% higher lifecycle GHG footprint than conventional gas per MMBtu.
        • Natural gas combustion emits 50% less CO₂ than coal, but full lifecycle emissions reduce this benefit.
    • Shift in Environmental Alliances and Anti-Gas Lobbying
      • Once evidence on methane leaks emerged, many environmental groups withdrew support for gas.
      • New groups, funded by tech and finance billionaires (with stakes in renewables), began opposing fossil fuels, including natural gas.
      • Funding for anti-fossil fuel lobbying now exceeds fossil fuel lobbying by 3 times.

    India’s Draft Climate Finance Taxonomy: Natural Gas Missing

    • The draft taxonomy recognises coal’s role in ensuring energy security and supports clean coal technologies like:
      • Supercritical (SC)
      • Ultra Supercritical (USC)
      • Advanced Ultra Supercritical (AUSC)
    • However, natural gas is absent, despite its GHG benefits over coal.
    • Reasons for exclusion:
      • High costs of natural gas.
      • Heavy reliance on imports, compromising energy security.
    • Climate-Supportive and Transition-Supportive Activities
    • The taxonomy includes activities that:
      • Improve energy efficiency.
      • Reduce emission intensity where absolute avoidance isn’t viable.
    • Natural gas projects that reduce emissions compared to coal may qualify as:
      • “Climate-supportive activities”.
      • “Transition-supportive activities”.
    • Reducing the Risk of Stranded Assets
    • The inclusion of natural gas under the taxonomy can:
      • Attract foreign investment.
      • Reduce the risk of stranded assets in the gas sector.
      • Reverse the declining trend in natural gas usage.

    Conclusion

    • Natural gas’s role in India’s energy transition remains contested due to political economic dynamics, methane concerns, and policy gaps.
    • A revised taxonomy that pragmatically includes natural gas as a transitional fuel could:
      • Balance energy security with climate goals.
      • Unlock critical investment.
      • Provide a realistic pathway towards a low-carbon economy in India.

     

     

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  • Why Maritime Security Must Be a National Priority?

    Why Maritime Security Must Be a National Priority?

    Maritime Borders and India’s National Security Thinking

    Context: India’s coastline is now officially 11,098.81 kilometres long, a significant increase from the previously accepted length of 7,561.50 km. 

    More on News

    • This revision follows an updated measurement methodology and change in scale — the first such reassessment since 1970. 
    • The sharp rise in India’s coastal length is not just a geographical update, but a strategic wake-up call underscoring the critical need to reorient India’s national security focus toward its maritime frontiers.

    From Land to Sea: Rethinking India’s Security Priorities

    • India’s national security doctrine has traditionally focused on threats emanating from its land borders, particularly with Pakistan and China. 
      • Decades of territorial conflict, along with the persistent menace of cross-border terrorism—as recently demonstrated in Pahalgam—have shaped India’s security mindset around its northern and western boundaries.
    • However, India is inherently a maritime nation.
      • With a coastline nearly three-fourths the length of its 15,106.7 km-long land borders, the time has come to accord equal strategic attention to maritime security.

    Mumbai Attacks: A Watershed in Maritime Security

    • The 26/11 Mumbai terror attacks of 2008, where terrorists infiltrated via the sea, exposed a glaring vulnerability in India’s coastal defenses. 
      • It marked a turning point in the country’s maritime security approach. 
      • In response, the Indian Coast Guard was integrated more closely with the Indian Navy to build a synchronised coastal security architecture.
    • This development highlighted an important concept: India’s territorial and maritime security are not separate, but part of a unified national security continuum. 
      • As such, policies, forces, and strategies must reflect this integration.

    Emerging Maritime Threats: Traditional and Non-Traditional

    • India’s maritime borders face an evolving array of traditional and non-traditional threats:
    • Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated (IUU) fishing
    • Piracy and maritime terrorism
    • Human and drug trafficking
    • Smuggling of arms and contraband
    • Climate change-related risks like rising sea levels and severe cyclones
    • These issues not only threaten maritime commerce and sovereignty but also have national and economic security implications. 
      • With over 90% of India’s trade by volume and 70% by value conducted via sea routes, safeguarding maritime corridors is crucial.

    Chinese Presence in the Indian Ocean: A Strategic Concern

    • China’s increasing strategic and naval footprint in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR) has amplified concerns. 
      • The presence of Chinese research and surveillance vessels near Indian waters is perceived as a precursor to future naval expansion.
      • Additionally, China’s growing influence among Indian Ocean littoral states presents diplomatic and geopolitical challenges.
    • This shifting power dynamic in the IOR demands that India enhance its maritime domain awareness, bolster naval capabilities, and deepen ties with regional partners through frameworks like the Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA) and QUAD.

    Bridging the Land-Sea Security Divide

    • The updated coastline length brings India’s maritime border within striking range of its territorial border in scale. 
      • This significantly narrows the once-wide gap in perception and strategic value between the two. 
    • India must now treat maritime defense and coastal development as core components of national security—not secondary or auxiliary priorities.
    • India can no longer afford to be “sea-blind”—a term used to describe the underestimation of maritime threats in strategic thinking. 
      • The revised coastal measurement is a reminder of India’s vast maritime responsibilities, and an urgent call to integrate maritime security into the broader national security policy framework.

    As India navigates a rapidly evolving regional and global security environment, the country must adopt a comprehensive maritime strategy that addresses both security and developmental imperatives. The recognition of India’s extended coastline is not just a cartographic change—it is a strategic pivot point that can redefine India’s role as a major maritime power in the Indo-Pacific.

     

     

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  • India’s AI Compute Strategy

    India’s AI Compute Strategy

    Optimising Computing Approaches for India’s National AI Capabilities

    Context: Artificial Intelligence (AI) has become a defining force in global technological advancement, with its growth underpinned by three key components—data, models, and compute. Of these, compute has emerged as the most scarce and strategically significant resource.

    Exponential Growth in AI Compute Demand

    • Since 2011, AI model training compute has increased by a factor of 350 million.
    • Starting around 2010, deep learning’s rise caused AI compute requirements to double every 5.7 months.
    • In 2015, large-scale ML models emerged, demanding 10 to 100 times more training compute than before.
    • Unlike data and models, compute remains a scarce and critical resource for AI innovation.

    Importance of National Compute Infrastructure

    • A country’s national innovation capabilities in AI depend heavily on its compute infrastructure.
    • Building foundational compute capabilities is vital for both economic development and national security.
    • The unequal global distribution of compute resources makes national computing strategies imperative.

    Increasing Demand for Data Centres and Resources

    • According to McKinsey, global data centre capacity could triple by 2030, with 70% of this growth driven by AI.
    • Data centres demand scarce resources like real estate and power; AI is projected to cause a 165% increase in data centre power demand by 2030.
    • Advanced semiconductors and high-end technology inputs are essential to meet AI workload needs.
    • Demand growth is also driven by cloud service providers catering to AI.

    Necessity of Diverse Compute Approaches

    • Given resource constraints and evolving needs, national compute strategies should include:
      • Centralised data centres
      • Distributed computing infrastructure, such as micro data centres and edge computing
    • Edge computing (processing AI models near data sources or devices) is emerging as critical for sectors requiring low latency.

    India’s Current Compute Landscape

    • India’s data centre industry has grown robustly at a 24% CAGR since 2019.
    • The IndiaAI Mission’s compute portal offers public access to GPUs at reduced rates; about 14,000 GPUs available, with plans to add more.
    • Proposals exist for a decentralised network of micro data centres to optimise space, energy, and costs.
    • The National Supercomputing Mission supports supercomputing for academic R&D.
    • Innovations like IIT-Madras’ Kompact AI enable AI models to run on CPUs instead of GPUs, expanding compute accessibility.
    • There is a strategic need to align these efforts with:
      • The shift from training to inference workloads
      • The rising role of edge computing

    Global Approaches to Building AI Compute Infrastructure

    • US: Market-led model with substantial private sector investments; home to large AI firms (OpenAI, AWS, Microsoft, Google) and chipmakers (NVIDIA, AMD, Intel).
      • NVIDIA collaborates with hardware manufacturers (Foxconn, Dell, ASUS) to build AI-specialized data centres (“AI factories”).
      • US policy supports domestic tech manufacturing and strategic AI infrastructure.
    • China: State-led expansion of “intelligent computing centres” with private players like Alibaba, Tencent, and Baidu.
      • Notable projects include an underwater data centre in Hainan for better energy efficiency and computational power.
      • Rapid buildout led to oversupply and underutilised centres, often designed for training rather than inference.
      • Shift to inference and low-latency reasoning models exposed mismatches in data centre locations, with central and rural sites less suited due to latency and proximity to tech hubs.
    • European Union: Institutional, public-institutional framework via the European High-Performance Computing Joint Undertaking (EuroHPC).
      • Focus on research hubs and enabling SMEs and start-ups.
      • Targets strategic sectors like health, space, finance, climate, and manufacturing.

    The Indian Imperative: Scale, Efficiency, and Access

    • India’s approach is unique, balancing between:
        • Government provisioning of GPUs under IndiaAI
        • Rapid data centre growth
        • Proposals for decentralised micro data centres
        • Supercomputing for research
    • Challenges include:
        • Risk of market distortion due to government provisioning
        • Bureaucratic hurdles that may limit access
        • The shift in compute demand from training to inference and edge computing
    • India must design policy to address:
      • The evolving nature of compute demand (training vs inference, edge processing)
      • Sectoral priorities with high AI adoption (telecommunications, manufacturing, automotive, healthcare)
      • Innovation goals of the start-up ecosystem, especially in deep tech
      • Ensuring low barriers to access for broad-based innovation and SME productivity
    • Although inference demand is growing, India is simultaneously developing indigenous Large Language Models (LLMs) requiring significant training compute.
    • Balancing compute capacity between training and inference is crucial.

    Unlocking Innovation Potential Through Compute

    • Most start-ups currently focus on application-driven innovation for faster returns.
    • Deep tech’s rising importance demands understanding compute needs for broad innovation.
    • Lowering access barriers will help drive AI adoption across sectors and geographies.

    Strategic Recommendations for India’s Compute Policy

    • Optimise computing strategies to balance:
      • Scale (large data centres, AI factories)
      • Efficiency (energy and resource optimisation, newer technologies)
      • Access (public provisioning, decentralised micro data centres, edge computing)
    • Harness market forces to promote private investment alongside government support.
    • Encourage development of decentralised computing infrastructure complementing centralised resources.
    • Align policy with geopolitical realities, economic factors, technological advances, and sectoral needs.

     

     

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